as a result of extractive and polluting capitalist ventures, humanity is now engaged in a fight for our ocean’s survival along with the livelihoods of those who depend on it for sustenance, income, and cultural meaning. with industrial overfishing and marine environmental destruction threatening fish and crustacean health, we desperately need to overhaul our maritime relationships and seafood systems. a wealth of environmentally preservative marine stewardship traditions by indigenous communities provide examples of how to do things right. indigenous scholar kii’iljuus barbara wilson of the cumshewa eagle clan notes, “it’s time to…learn about all the things my ancestors did to ensure that there was enough fish and octopus — looking after and respecting the environment.” our planet is in dire need of sustainable food sources that both support our deteriorating natural ecosystems and nourish increasing human populations, requirements met by multiple indigenous seafood systems.

indigenous seafood stewardship past and present

there is an extensive history of first nations people across the world practicing mariculture, or the cultivation of marine life for food in enclosed areas of open waters. indigenous communities along the northwest coast of north america have long harvested herring eggs from kelp, cedar, and spruce fronds they strategically placed in shallow ocean waters. these introduced organic materials enhance spawning grounds, therefore improving the likelihood that herring will return. in new zealand, the māori people have engaged in mara mataitai –– various approaches to mariculture –– to ensure collective food security since 925. for instance, māori communities used bull kelp to fertilize beds of toheroa, a large bivalve mollusk, to enhance its productivity. māori mariculture is informed by utu, a concept dictating reciprocity with the species and ecosystems from which humans derive our resources. if this principle is replicated by ocean stewards worldwide, we can bolster and protect the ocean habitats on which we greatly rely.

one of the most productive indigenous mariculture innovations that could radically transform our seafood systems if adopted at a larger scale is the clam garden. various populations have been constructing clam gardens for at least 4,000 years by building a rock wall at the low tide line that traps sediment, thereby reducing the slope of the beach and increasing clam habitat area. clam gardens specifically support enhanced production by creating a larger area of optimal intertidal height qualified with prime growth conditions. in british columbia, butter clams within gardens had 1.96 times the biomass and 2.44 times the density as their counterparts in unmodified beaches. to create more productive food systems, the seafood industry must take indigenous practices of food cultivation seriously and learn from the skills willing to be shared. there is no use in waiting for western science to confirm what first nations people have known about the success of their seafood systems for centuries.

these examples of indigenous mariculture innovations provide a small survey of the indigenous stewardship methods that bolster seafood supplies while fostering a restorative relationship with our seas, all without utilizing industrial resources or exploiting the environment. in bitter irony, “indigenous people are now the ‘outliers’ on their own ancestral lands,” despite their superior, sustainable stewardship. first nations people engaged with mariculture practices deserve reparations and support from industrial actors and government programming alike. governments can start by reversing restrictive policies such as canada’s fisheries act that asserts federal authority over all fisheries in canada, undermining the rights of indigenous communities to exercise their expertise over the waters they’ve long depended on.

climate-forward collaborations

in a present-day model program, researchers, tribal nations, students, and various indigenous stewards are currently coming together through the cross-pacific regional collaborative hub funded by noaa’s sea grant program in washington state. this project is initiating research, outreach, and education in collaboration with indigenous communities across hawaii, alaska, and washington to advance indigenous aquaculture practices in the pacific region. the group hosts summits, advances existing restoration sites, and plans for future investments in indigenous aquaculture. returns to indigenous ocean stewardship, accompanied by reparatory and collaborative action, can build more gentle yet robust seafood systems while rebuilding the industry’s broken connection to the sea.

this story was featured in our series, slipping through our fingers: the future of water.

how kelp can help

ocean-based kelp farming has emerged as not only one of the most sustainable methods of aquaculture, but an actively restorative one. contrary to its land-dwelling relatives, kelp requires no freshwater, no pesticides, and no arable land to flourish. this low-maintenance system actively protects the surrounding ecosystem from the hazards of ocean acidification (oa) by soaking up dissolved carbon dioxide for use in photosynthesis, thereby restoring ph to healthy levels. kelp can also help to prevent harmful algal blooms (habs) by absorbing anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus –– nutrients that stimulate the toxic proliferation of algae –– to feed itself.

u.s. investment in this method of regenerative ocean farming (rof) has grown substantially in the past decade as people have sought to supplant the tradition of purchasing seaweed products from china and indonesia. with imports accounting for over 95% of edible seaweed products available in the u.s., there is plenty of room for homegrown farmers to take over. such a switch would also eliminate the monetary and emissions costs of cross-continent transportation. farmers such as fogg are therefore “[creating] nutritious, delicious kelp-based products that support ocean farmers and fight climate change.”

currently, maine and alaska are farming the majority of domestic seaweed biomass, but rof is quickly expanding throughout new england and the west coast. researchers project u.s.-farmed seaweed harvests will quadruple by 2035. expansion of the kelp farming industry creates and diversifies coastal jobs, provides healthy seafood from local sources, and buffers marine wildlife from the impacts of oa and habs. so, what’s left to do? sell this seaweed all along the seashore.

taking our taste buds out to sea

finally growing out of the boutique, us-grown seaweed market in 2019, kelp has begun to make a new name for itself by flaunting its applicability and nutrition. kelp is a versatile food that can be kept fresh, frozen, dried, or ground into an array of products, from noodles to seasoning. this salty sea veggie is packed with potassium, magnesium, fiber, essential fatty acids (omega-3’s), high quality proteins, and vitamins a, b, c, e, and k. a single ⅓ cup serving of kelp can satisfy your daily iodine requirements –– a mineral that is essential for regulating metabolism, among other important bodily processes.

the u.s. non-profit greenwave is leading the charge to get more rof operations up and running, and is now directing a market innovation program that helps open up new business channels for these rof farmers. akua is just one of the companies that greenwave is partnering with to develop desirable kelp commodities. courtney boyd myers–the co-founder of akua–launched her first product, kelp jerky, back in 2019 upon learning about the vast environmental, economic, and health benefits of kelp farming. their new headline product is the world’s first commercially sold kelp burger; this is what propelled the company to the national stage. since their initial launch, akua has tripled their purchasing volume and garnered more capacity for food research and development, adding pasta, ground “meat,” and a kelp “krab” cake to their list of creations. “we’re on a mission to make kelp mainstream,” says boyd myers.

and they’re not alone. back in maine, atlantic sea farms (asf) is making waves with their award-winning kelp-based kimchi, fresh seaweed salad, and smoothie-ready frozen kelp cubes. asf even boasts high-profile partners such as sweetgreen and daily harvest. alaska’s barnacle foods is creating a line of salsa made from bull kelp that packs an umami punch. eat more kelp (long island, ny), seagrove kelp co. (alaska), and blue evolution (pacific coast) are also hopping on the regenerative seaweed farming boat. with >80% of domestic seaweed production growth through 2035 projected to be stimulated by value-added edible products, the only thing left to do is get this kelp on your shelf.

kelp can “usurp the burp”

the benefits of kelp are being explored beyond the human market, creating an even larger demand for biomass. one surprising candidate: cows. there are about 3 billion ruminant animals on the planet –– including cows, sheep and goats –– that burp methane as part of their digestive process. methane has almost 30 times the short-term heat trapping power as carbon dioxide, making it an especially potent greenhouse gas. according to the epa, domestic livestock in the u.s. contribute 36% of anthropogenic emissions, and in california alone, 1.8 million dairy cows emit as much co2 equivalent as 2.5 million cars each year. in some environmentalists’ perfect world, the entire planet would be vegan. however, this tactic ignores the 1.3 billion people that partially or entirely depend on the livestock industry as a vital source of income.

through kelp driven innovation, perhaps we don’t have to condemn livestock production outright. researchers at james cook university in australia explored the ancient greek and icelandic practice of raising cattle by the ocean to tackle this conundrum. the team tested out over 20 species of seaweed in cow’s diets and came up with one clear climate-friendly winner: asparagopsis taxiformis. whereas some species reduced methane emissions by 50% when comprising up to 20% of the feed, a. taxiformis reduced methane production by 99% when only taking up 2% of the diet. robert kinley and his team realized that bromoform –– a molecule found in a. taxiformis –– disrupts an enzyme used by a methane-producing gut bacteria in the course of digestion. in addition to solving an environmental problem, seaweed feeds also help farmers save on cattle cuisine: by minimizing energy waste in animal digestion (~15% of feed expenses are lost in methane emissions) the livestock can grow and produce more milk while requiring less sustenance.

many growers and foodies projected that kelp will take over as “the new kale” and come to dominate the plates of health-minded consumers. despite this enthusiasm, kelp still needs all (i’m looking at you, cows) of our curiosity and support to reach an economy of scale in which such nutrient-rich, climate-friendly creations can compete with other gmo, lab-grown, and resource-intensive food alternatives on the market today. the bottom line, says myers: “if we can move people’s stomachs, we can move their minds to be conscious of the impact of their decisions around food and in other parts of their life.” the next time you visit the grocery store, go out to eat, or talk to a friend, try to make a choice that will actively kelp our farmers, our seas, and our planet.

“from birth one of my passions has been the ocean,” doall said, a lasting enthusiasm that ultimately led to his career in regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration. while his days of skipping class to bum it at the beach may be over, you can still find doall in the bays of long island, dedicating hours to researching and reviving the marine organisms that provide innumerable benefits to the ecosystem he calls home. 

at the beginning of doall’s education in marine biology, regenerative aquaculture — the farming of marine species in open waters to bolster habitat quality — was not remotely common in the u.s., let alone something on doall’s mind. but, having always had gardens growing up, doall found that the field of ocean aquaculture brought together his passions for the ocean and for growing things.

doall was first exposed to regenerative aquaculture 20 years ago while managing a research service facility in long island. the nature conservancy had started a hard clam and oyster restoration program in long island’s great south bay and reached out to doall for his analytic expertise. bivalves, such as clams and oysters, are essential to ocean ecosystems, because they suck up excess nutrients and sediment from waterways, improving water quality and preventing harmful algal blooms. at the nature conservancy, doall grew shellfish in cages across the bay to study how different marine environments would support these species. 

there, he realized how much he enjoyed growing the oysters and rebuilding marine ecosystems, so he dove deeper into open water aquaculture by establishing the first oyster restoration projects in new york harbor (nyh). while working at these sites, he aimed to use oysters as solely an environmental tool — the harbor’s pollution meant organisms wouldn’t be safe for consumption — but later he “had the epiphany that oysters do the same thing in an aquaculture setting as they do in nature.” that is, by growing oysters for human consumption, these filter feeders would naturally improve water quality by consuming excess nutrients and provide a sustainable source of fresh seafood at the same time.

inspired, doall started his own oyster farm in 2008: montauk shellfish company. he took a lot of pride in being an oyster farmer, stating that “one of the most important activities you can do is to grow food and feed your community.” and feed his community he did. doall was on the cusp of an “oyster renaissance” and would witness montauk take off beyond his expectations. 

during his time as an oyster farmer, doall took a trip up to maine and was introduced to a new sea crop that would later inspire his research: kelp. doall was interested in crop diversification for his farm and learned from some of the first u.s. kelp farmers that this sea veggie is a great complement to shellfish because of their opposite growth seasons (kelp in the winter, shellfish in the summer). 

though he sold his farm in 2017, doall still very much considers himself a farmer in his current role as associate director for bivalve restoration and aquaculture at stony brook university. as a scientist, doall is well positioned to pursue kelp through research projects in long island waters that do not yet allow commercial kelp farming due to a decade-long battle for obtaining permits and expanding processing capacity.

over the past four years, doall has been tirelessly dedicated to bringing the benefits of kelp to long island. as with oysters, kelp sucks excess nitrogen out of the water, helping to keep our oceans clean. combining the two creatures creates a marine-cleaning superteam to counteract the eutrophication — excessive nutrient pollution — that has long plagued long island. further, kelp captures carbon dioxide from the water column as it photosynthesizes. that carbon gets removed from the ocean when the kelp is harvested, making seaweed a tool for fighting local ocean acidification that threatens the health of our marine ecosystems, including many of the species we depend on for food. doall developed a specialized technique for growing kelp in the shallow coastal waters of long island that are only knee or waist deep, as opposed to traditional kelp farming that is done in much deeper waters. he was impressively able to grow 12-foot long kelp fronds in only 6 feet of water. this compact feat can help not only shallow-water ocean farmers but also other species residing in shallow bays, where poor water flow otherwise means poor water quality.

the nutrient-extraction capabilities of farming kelp are especially important in long island. as doall said of his hometown, “long islanders love their lawns and golf courses.” he tells me about the truckloads of fertilizer that are brought in during the warmer months, dumping nitrogen all across the island. a farmer at heart, doall envisions growing forests of kelp along the coast to absorb the nitrogen runoff from shore. once harvested, this kelp can be developed into nitrogen-rich fertilizer, equipped with other micronutrients and biostimulants, that can be used throughout the community. it would be a closed nitrogen loop, lowering the demand for imported fertilizer and delivering environmental and economic benefits to the island. doall plans to explore such a system’s feasibility this summer through garden studies on kelp-based fertilizer’s benefits.

doall’s dedication to restoring his home seas has carried him through a variety of challenges. despite support from large environmental groups such as the nature conservancy and pew charitable trust, regenerative aquaculture must compete with a variety of stakeholders on the water. recreational boaters, commercial fishermen, and even wind surfers have opposed doall’s projects.

“in the end, all these groups recognize the value of regenerative farming, but a lot of people don’t want it in an area where they’re doing something,” he said. there is also a so-called “social carrying capacity” for aquaculture: once over ~5% of the coastline is occupied by ocean farmers, “people start freaking out” and are quick to complain about the oyster farms visible from their backyard. nevertheless, doall has found that a healthy, bustling ocean can unify disparate marine interests.

at the end of the day, doall believes in his mission to support ocean farming and rebuild shellfish populations in his home waters. while he knows his focal solutions to climate change are not the only solutions, the benefits of regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration cannot be ignored. aquaculture projects secure jobs and income while nutrient bioextraction revitalizes the ecosystem, a win-win for coastal economies and environments. moreover, because of overfishing and marine habitat degradation, fishing communities that have long relied on the ocean for their sense of identity are losing their cultural ties. luckily, according to doall, “regenerative aquaculture is a way to bring that cultural identity back…so there’s a win-win-win.”

you will always find doall working away in the waters of long island, happy as a clam, because, “when do you plant a victory flag? never.” the fight for climate-resilient solutions never stops, but local, restorative projects like these continue to provide hope for a greener future.