paving the way for the future of new zealand’s aquaculture industry, the cawthron institute is collaborating with te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to study the native species of karengo. this red seaweed grows along intertidal shorelines, along the rocky east coast of the south island, along with some parts of the north island coast. the research program, “he tipu moana he oranga tangata: revealing karengo as a high-value functional food,” predominantly took place in august and september, when the karengo flourished from around the kaikoura to bluff regions. similar to japanese nori, karengo has been used for centuries as a traditional māori food source. the researchers have been working closely with indigenous people to better understand the seaweed’s capabilities and māori preparation. the study received $3 million to perform their research, courtesy of the nz ministry of business, innovation and employment. 

the aim of the study is four-fold: in order to identify the seaweed, develop a method for algae protein extraction to retain important components; assess the value of the algae when used in food products; analyze the composition; determine the health and nutritional benefits.

with these objectives in mind, the team hopes to help develop a high-value industry with this karengo seaweed at its center. in the words of team researcher and head of analytical research & development at the cawthron institute, tom wheeler, the end goal is to develop karengo-infused foods that are “desirable as well as being nutritious.”

in the process of experimentation, wheeler and his team cataloged karengo samples and completed dna-based sequencing to identify each karengo species. they identified each species based on form and structure (morphology), as well as the genetic basis. the team extracted the protein composition of each sample through the processes of transcription of dna to rna and translation from rna to protein. through holistic categorization, the team could distinguish between outwardly similar forms of algae.

wheeler said in a statement that it could take between five to ten years for the program to conclude with the results they have in mind, but much has already been discovered. through their protein-sequencing program, the team has already identified five species and 2 genera. they have found, to date, two species in the porphyra genus and three in pyropia. all of these species were found to have valuable nutritional properties, some including all essential amino acids, micronutrients such as iron, and anti-inflammatory bioactives. these bioactives have been shown in other studies to help diminish pain and inflammation caused by conditions such as chronic lung and inflammatory bowel diseases. in an interview, dr. wheeler highlighted the importance of these findings, citing their nuance in a “plant-based protein from a source that hasn’t really been utilized so far in terms of the food industry sense.”

karengo is no new discovery. professor mithen, chief scientist for the new zealand high value nutrition national science challenge, notes that “karengo is part of the exceedingly rich native flora of aotearoa new zealand.” what is worth the $3 million in funding is the massive potential of the seaweed industry for new zealand. mithen continues, saying, “harvesting karengo in a sustainable manner will lead to the development of new foods to benefit the health of the people of new zealand and offer innovative export opportunities for business.” as more people are beginning to realize the implications of the dairy and meat industries, the demand for alternative protein sources continues to increase. another study on the structure of algae noted that the physical composition of algae makes it well suited for making nutraceuticals, or high-value nutritional supplements. plant-based proteins are derived from all sorts of resources, with often a lessened environmental impact and heightened nutrition. 

a new high-value industry would be monumental for new zealand’s aquaculture industry, joining the broad market of fin-fish and shellfish. research such as this project will help drive investment into the seaweed industry. wheeler emphasizes that “this kind of research and development will inform investment and policy making that supports the sustainable long-term growth of the industry”. it is the hope of the research team and those funding their research that seaweed will become the third pillar of new zealand’s aquaculture industry.

there is still much exploring left uncovered in the realm of seaweed research. along the coast of new zealand alone, there are hundreds of varieties of native seaweeds. their unknown composition and bioactive potential alludes to years of future discovery. 

it would be unjust to study karengo and its nutrition potential without acknowledging the traditions of the māori people who have been using this seaweed for centuries. researchers from the cawthron institute have collaborated closely with both te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to incorporate indigenous perspective into their work. alongside these organizations, the researchers learned about traditional cultivation practices and preparation methods, as the māori have been using karengo for its nutritional value as a staple in their diets. as this project continues, the team has acknowledged the importance of sustainable development of karengo cultivation and the seaweed market. once the capitalist actors become involved, it is often difficult to maintain sustainability as a priority. yet, without a positive environmental perspective, an irresponsible exploitation of karengo would quickly decimate the variety of species. 

although there are many components to sustainable development of such industries, it is essential to establish safe practices for the long-term wellbeing of the ecosystem. the project will work alongside local partners to determine the most conscientious methods for harvesting and preparation, with heavy emphasis on indigenous knowledge. it will be interesting to see in twenty years how this project and others like it redefine new zealand’s aquaculture industry and the lasting impacts –– the good, the bad, and the algae. 

courtesy of extensive, amateur google searches, the mushroom is presumably coprinopsis atramantaria, commonly known as an ink cap mushroom –– or not, i am truly no expert. regardless, being quarantined in the suburbs of burlington has provided a window into the vast network of neighbors i had never thought to look for, especially not in my own home. stemming from this same sense of wonder, with significantly more precision and expertise, is the field of mycology: the study of fungi. 

in an attempt to further understand my fungal neighbors i turned to the experts in mycology for answers. why were they growing inside my studio? could mushrooms adapt to human-influenced conditions? what would their adaptability do to benefit the broader environment in the age of climate change? as it turns out, another group of neighbors, humans this time, released a paper in recent years through the gund institute for environment at the university of vermont in an attempt to tackle some of these questions.

perhaps it would be helpful to briefly introduce the terminology used in the following exploration. the mycellium is a web of thread-like hyphae (vegetative filaments) that stem from each individual mushroom and connect them to each other beneath the earth. researchers alison bennett and aimee classen hypothesized about the impact of climate change on fungi characterized by these mycelium. their study of experimental warming and precipitation variability examined the impact these stressors have on fungi. 

amidst a staring contest with my new fungal housemate, i reflected upon the weather patterns in our area for the past couple weeks. it seems as though the rain on monday, warmth on tuesday and ongoing spells of variable weather might have had some sort of impact on the growth of mushrooms in the area. as it turns out, these ink cap mushrooms are common in yards and other grassy areas. with the knowledge that it is not uncommon to have these fungi sprout up near homes, there remains a question of why these areas and what does weather have to do with it?

bennett and classen discuss these growth patterns, or hyphal exploration types, and the diversity of ability they provide to fungi. much of where mushrooms end up growing depends on their exploration and deposition of spores. 

i imagine the miniscule hyphae pushing themselves and the rest of their body in between the sheetrock and floorboards, searching for moist, warm air. 

by gathering and sifting through literature to form connections between climate change, fungi and plant growth, the scientists found that fungi seem to act in a new role: a buffer. 

through the underground mycelial network, plants and some fungi exist symbiotically, and these fungi are called mycorrhizal fungi. this relationship is characterized by a constant exchange of water and nutrients from the fungi to the plant and photosynthetic sugars from the plant to the fungi. bennett and classen conclude that these fungi could perhaps, “…buffer plant hosts against extinction risk, they can facilitate or retard the dispersal success of plants moving away from poor environments, and, by buffering host plants, they can enable host plant adaptation to new climates.” fungi, it seems, are perhaps the key to protecting the green of earth’s future. 

using their hyphae, mycorrhizal fungi are able to increase surface area, promoting increased water absorption. this provides a sort of reservoir for their plant partners to draw from in cases of low water availability in soil. as the anthropocene continues, precipitation patterns are becoming increasingly irregular and unpredictable. by having this safety net of a mycelial network backing them up, bennet and classen hope that the future impacts of climate change will be at least partially mitigated by the ability for these mycorrhizal fungi to adapt to changing conditions.

a sense of comfort is offered through this exploration of the symbiotic relationship between fungi and plants in the age of climate change. it is reassuring to know that the ink caps’ connections through the mycelial network of millions of fungi are taking care of the plant-life, at least until humans hopefully figure out how to show them as much respect. 

the next step in this journey is to make pottery glazes from these ink cap mushrooms, but that will be an experiment for another day.

scaling up these intimate moments between human and nature, the coasts offer a window into the function of relational ecology in sustainable development: to address the question of how a community’s connection to the ocean impacts the development of aquaculture.

islands and oceans

the interconnected waters of planet earth serve as a bridge between land masses, as well as between humans and the environment. in the context of all ecologies, that of the ocean is the most biodiverse and contains the most that is unknown to humanity. in using this ecosystem for profit, human industry has commodified the ocean and exploited this biodiversity. 

in response to this large-scale degradation, aquaculture industries around the world have been developing methods to pursue these resources in a way that honors the ocean and its invaluable ecosystem. the stewards of such innovations are largely the indigenous groups of coastal communities, who have been thriving in unity, using these “new innovations” for millennia. 

through their cultural tradition and roots in the physical environment, many communities illustrate the expanded parameter of human understanding that is present when society and environment exist in unity. although indigenous communities serve as the most deeply and widely connected communities in communion with the natural environment, there are non-indigenous communities that have developed to share similar values. 

relational ecology

in the discussion of post-human geographies — environmental philosophies that de-center humanity — relational ecology serves as the philosophy that represents the “vitality of non-human actors –– climate, animals, plants, waterways –– and their relationship with humanity and amongst one another.”  developed in this context by tim ingold, relational ecology, as a theory and in practice values all, “who might come to share in each other’s wisdoms.” it is this sharing of wisdom, alongside cosmetological beliefs, that inform indigenous ways of life. their stewardship and comprehensive awareness of the patterns in the natural world give the indigenous populations an opportunity to serve their environment and community. this relational ecology can be carried over into the development of plans for aquaculture, thus encompassing some aspects of the rich connection between the community, especially those who are indigenous, and the environment. 

aquaculture

aquaculture is defined as the “cultivation of ocean-dwelling plants or animals, for human consumption.” ever-growing, aquaculture industries in japan, korea and china have set the stage for developments across the oceans. humans are looking to alternative, sustainable food sources to sustain themselves as the world’s resources dwindle. these processes may require sophisticated systems of machinery, nets and treatments. aquaculture requires specificity and careful planning in order to be successful, and sustainable. 

despite the challenges and potential for degradation, there are innovators pushing forward to promote large-scale production. sustainable use of ocean resources has taken place for millennia by indigenous peoples on island nations and other coastal regions. from a larger-scale perspective, by scaling up their subsistence model there is potential to “consume marine food in a more diverse and insightful manner, including eating from lower trophic levels and limiting bycatch and waste.”

island relational ecology

large-scale aquaculture development is happening, and will continue to do so. it is a large opportunity for a shift in economic and societal perspectives that focus only on industrial endeavors, to the ontological basis of relation ecology, so that aquaculture might be conducted in a more sustainable manner.  their position in the economic and geopolitical shadow of multinational corporations often makes small island nations vulnerable to be exploited and ignored. a broader understanding and awareness of natural processes and patterns give policy makers and industry leaders an opportunity to collaborate with local communities to expand sustainable ocean aquaculture. 

this philosophy of relational ecology, fueled by curiosity and compassion, can be carried out by anyone, anywhere, no matter how small their feet are. 

many western people think of seafood as one category: fish. as jessica gephart, an environmental scientist and professor at american university said in an interview, “we talk about it (seafood) as one group in the same way we might talk about chicken or beef, but really it represents 2000 species that are captured or cultivated around the world.” 

seafood is more than fish

the term seafood refers to a diverse array of organisms from fish to cephalopods (octopus, squid, cuttlefish, etc.) to algae (phytoplankton, seaweed), among others.

we often limit our seafood choices to only fish, leaving the rest of the sea in a tank. 

how can we expand the conversation around seafood — and why should we?

ole mouritsen, physicist and professor of gastrophysics and culinary food innovation at the university of copenhagen, answers, “it’s a matter of elevating people’s knowledge of what seafood is.” 

mouritsen’s exploration of cephalopods and algae began as an interest in japanese cuisine. his curiosity led him to years of research surrounding these organisms and their role in food systems. he has worked alongside scientists and chefs to explore the nutritional compounds and flavor found in these species. in his recent paper, a role for macroalgae and cephalopods in sustainable eating, mouritsen claims we should look further to octopus, squid, seaweed and other aquatic organisms for a lessened environmental impact and greater health benefits. his research calls for a change to “consume marine food in a more diverse and insightful manner, including eating from lower trophic levels and limiting bycatch and waste” (mouritsen & styrbæk, 2018, p. 2). by consuming these compounds at the source, we are able to maximize the nutritional value of these foods. typically 90% of nutrients are lost as they move up the food chain through consumption. marine seaweed is on the lower end of the food chain, and dense in micronutrients. cephalopods are generally on a higher trophic level, while still retaining much of their nutrient density. when we eat the organisms towards these lower trophic levels (compared to large fish, cows, pigs, etc.), we consume the richest nutrient components, with fewer calories. 

role of cephalopods & algae in a nutrient-rich diet

raw, boiled, fermented, alive, fluorescent, it’s all edible, mostly.

beyond their delectable flavor, these two types of organisms provide omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. the human body cannot synthesize these nutrients on our own, so we must seek them out in our food. micronutrients including iodine, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium are also found in many species of cephalopods and algae. all of these nutrients are essential for our health and brain function (mouritsen & schmidt, 2020).

beyond nutritional value, one of the huge strengths of seafood is the diversity, explained gephart. not only are there over 2000 species of seafood organisms, but they are “found in all climatic belts on the planet and they can be harvested in the wild or farmed in aquaculture” (mouritsen & schmidt, 2020, p. 2). 

umami

mouritsen highlights in an interview that when it comes to diet “taste comes first — after that you can talk about nutrition, health, calories, and sustainability.” the central component of mouritsen’s research related to seafood is the umami flavor found in cephalopods and algae. umami, is considered “the essence of deliciousness” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8). found in a variety of cephalopods and algae, “umami may be a part of the solution to provide healthier, less caloric and more satisfying meals” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8) — while adding the same delicious savory flavor we’re used to. the umami-rich seafood plays the role of an alternative to salt or sugar. replacing additives with seaweed and other umami-rich foods can “reduce the fat content by up to 30%… and reduce salt intake up to 50 % without reducing while retaining palatability” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8). this work has also involved experimentation with the use of umami as seasoning for vegetables in an effort to make a plant-based diet more palatable for omnivores.the craft of preparation

the reason most americans find cephalopods and seaweed unappetizing is the texture. cephalopods get their texture from collagen, which makes up their muscular structure. in his research, mouritsen speaks to the value of proper preparation, describing for example how improperly prepared squid can transform from a subtle, tender dish to a rubbery, greasy mess. japanese cuisine offers models of how to handle these meats. we may look to their example, mouritsen believes, to see “as with other types of meat this can be handled by culinary insight, craftsmanship, and scientific knowledge”(2020, p. 3). for these more uncommon types of seafood, it will take culinary insight and public communication for them to find their way onto western grocery store shelves.

looking to the future

feeding the growing human population will require culinary innovation. mouritsen notes that in order to meet our needs, “we would have to use all the resources of mother earth,” including cephalopods and algae — even if it takes some getting used to. seafood represents an under-utilized, sustainable alternative to more expensive, carbon-producing food products. mainstreaming seafood — in all its variety — will make the world easier to feed. 

when it comes to food you can’t really force it. it takes a long time. it probably took a long time for americans to learn how to eat pizza.” -ole mouritsen

works cited

mouritsen, o. g. (2016). deliciousness of food and a proper balance in fatty acid composition as means to improve human health and regulate food intake. flavour, 5(1). doi:10.1186/s13411-016-0048-2

mouritsen, o. g., & schmidt, c. v. (2020). a role for macroalgae and cephalopods in sustainable eating. frontiers in psychology, 11, [1402]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01402 

mouritsen, o. g., & styrbæk, k. (2018). cephalopod gastronomy – a promise for the future. frontiers in communications, 3, [38]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2018.00038