may 2019. i don’t remember the exact date, but i know it was a tuesday. the day started off seemingly normal, or so i thought. i woke up with my chest tight, not a rare occurrence since i struggle with anxiety. i really didn’t think anything of it. 

i’ve always struggled with the allergy season. i had childhood asthma, my mom used to administer nebulizer treatments to me at night when i was in elementary school. a couple of annual checkups later, my pediatrician told us i outgrew my asthma. i was given a fresh albuterol inhaler prescription and was told to pick it up and keep it on me at all times.

my parents live on roosevelt island, a small island between manhattan and queens. there’s an aerial tramway that connects the island to the upper east side of manhattan and only one subway line, the f train. in the early spring, roosevelt island is known for its lush cherry blossom trees and the annual cherry blossom festival. needless to say, when you live here and struggle with allergies, you have to take preventative measures. i wouldn’t leave the house unless i’ve taken my allergy medication and have some on me just in case. yes, it’s that serious. 

seasonal airborne allergen exposure in the us begins with the release of tree pollen in the spring. according to the national climate assessment, between the 1950s and the early 2000s, warmer winters and earlier arrival of springs has resulted in the earlier flowering of oak trees. increases in co2 have induced earlier and much more intense seasonal pollen production in pine and oak trees. the first week of may is historically known as the worst time of the year for pollen levels in new york city. 

and so that’s what i did. i was getting ready to go meet up with some friends for lunch. i took some zyrtec and tucked the rest of the pack in my bag before leaving. we were meeting at a taco spot not too far away from the manhattan tramway stop. i figured i would just take the tramway and walk for 20 minutes. 

the national climate assessment details how rising temperatures and increased co2 concentrations can influence asthma in “three ways: by increasing the duration of the pollen season, by increasing the amount of pollen produced by plants and by altering the degree of allergic reactions to pollen.”

as i was walking, my chest felt like it was getting heavier and heavier. i figured it was just my fast pace (of course, i was running late). i knew something was wrong when i was on the corner of 68th street. at this point, my cough had become uncontrollable and i was starting to wheeze. i was looking for somewhere to sit so i could catch my breath. i found a stoop and immediately called my mom. the second she heard me on the phone she told me to hang up and call 911. and that’s what i did. i hadn’t been carrying my inhaler around for years because i really didn’t think i would ever need to use it after so long. 

climate change is lengthening and intensifying pollen seasons. for people with allergic asthma, exposure to certain types of pollen can result in worsening of symptoms leading to increases in allergy medication sales and emergency room visits for asthma, as already documented in new york city.

i don’t remember riding in the ambulance. when i woke up, the nurse taking care of me explained how i had a severe asthma attack. she talked about how she’s seen more and more people have been coming into the er for asthma treatment. i asked why. she then in turn explained how pollen seasons have been longer and more intense due to warmer temperatures.

experts are noticing a longer-term trend in allergy complaints and are linking it to climate change. “as global warming increases, it’s actually making the seasons longer and making the pollen counts much higher,” said dr. purci marikh with the allergy and asthma network in an interview with jeff smith from abc7ny news.

i’ll probably never know if climate change caused all that extra pollen that sent me to the emergency room that day, but the science is definitive. warming temperatures usher in way more pollen…for way more of the year. it affects more and more people every year, and i may have been one of them.

phoenix – rows of cardboard boxes containing corpses line the walls of refrigerated storage containers, waiting for charred human remains to be cleared from the incineration chamber to make room for the next body.

the cremations continue through the night in a scene that has unfolded across america as covid-19 deaths have risen to more than 540,000 over the past year.

in arizona, where 16,842 have died in the pandemic, the smoke and the hum of crematoriums working overtime have left some neighbors desperate for relief from the odor and pollution.

arizonans opt for cremation more frequently than the national average, with 67% choosing that option in 2020, according to a july 2020 report from the national funeral directors association.

the national cremation rate reached 56% last year, an increase from 47.9% in 2015, the last reported year. the rise was fueled by the covid-19 death toll and pandemic restrictions, the low cost of cremation services and the flexible timing for funeral arrangements with cremated ashes.

some condo owners in east scottsdale have taken notice of unexpected wafts of smoke and a lingering odor coming from the nearby paradise memorial crematory near 93rd street and shea boulevard.

“the smell was so unbearable that everybody needs to run into their houses,” said retiree marlene dove, who moved there in september. “if you have guests, they have to come in or they put things over their heads and their faces to keep the smell out.”

her complaint is among 20 filed in maricopa county regarding crematorium smoke from feb. 27, 2020, to march 2, 2021. records from maricopa county air quality show the complaints include black or brown smoke and a “horrible odor.” some residents claimed the emissions gave them sore throats.

“i understand that you have to take care of the dead,” dove said. “but i also understand you have to take care of the living.”

last april, maricopa county air quality lifted a regulation prohibiting crematoriums from operating past sunset, giving them more time to cremate the increased number of covid-19 deaths. that lift, which was extended in june and again in december, is in effect through may 31.

according to arizona department of health services data, the state saw surges in covid-19 related deaths during the summer and winter, with a single-day high of 173 deaths reported jan. 18.

the occasional smoke coming from crematorium chimneys is an inevitable byproduct of the cremation process, said james ahearne, coo of messinger mortuaries, the company that oversees paradise memorial crematory.

“every crematory will smoke, if they tell you they don’t, they’re lying,” he said. “it’s just the way it is.”

last year, paradise memorial crematory – one of the largest in the state – cremated 6,868 bodies, an increase from 6,071 in 2019, before the pandemic began. from the start of 2021, paradise memorial already has cremated 1,931 bodies, ahearne said, with much of those coming in january after the holidays. if the trend continues, 2021 could outpace last year.

ahearne said a walk-in freezer used to store bodies at paradise memorial had 60 to 70 bodies backlogged in january, waiting to be cremated.

by 2030, the cremation rate in arizona is expected to reach nearly 80%, the national funeral directors association says.

nationally, the median cost to bury an adult in a traditional ceremony is $7,640, according to the association. in arizona, it’s $6,906.

cremations cost an average of $6,645 nationally, with a cremation casket and urn, and about $5,812 in arizona, according to the association.

there’s also the convenience of cremating now and organizing a service later at a particular destination, said barbara kemmis, executive director of the cremation association of north america.

with travel restrictions and social distancing guidelines in place for many states throughout the pandemic, cremation extends the time frame for grieving families to make decisions for the deceased.

as covid-19 cremations surged across the country, so did neighbor’s complaints about smoke and sore throats.

“that’s completely a danger when they’re overwhelmed and trying to do as many cases a day to return those cremated remains to loved ones,” kemmis said.

issues with smoke coming from paradise memorial crematory are not new but have seemingly worsened throughout the pandemic, said david dubner, 79, who has filed multiple complaints with maricopa county and is dove’s neighbor.

“there’s not just been puffs but pouring smoke, sometimes for up to five, six minutes. (it) covers the whole area,” dubner said.

three years ago, paradise memorial crematory expanded the number of cremation ovens on their premises from three to six, ahearne said, and plans to add another in the next five or six months.

“what we’re trying to do here is cremate as many as we have to for our clients and not smoke at all,” ahearne said. “and unfortunately, sometimes we do.”

throughout the pandemic, said gregg busch, funeral service manager at neptune society in tempe, the increased number of covid-related deaths and cremations has forced staff members to work into the night and put employees at risk of covid-19 infection.

“everybody is shorthanded and everybody is struggling to keep up,” busch said.

“organizations like our own – which focus entirely on cremation – have been overwhelmed by the pandemic,” said busch, who has more than 40 years of experience in the funeral industry. “not only just the number of deaths that have occurred but also in the fact that our staff and our employees have many times become infected, which puts us even farther behind with low staffing.”

this wasn’t the first time crematoriums extended hours of operation to keep up with an increased number of deaths, he said, but “nothing compared to this.”

“it was certainly a difficult time during the h1n1 pandemic,” busch said. “the covid-19 pandemic is much more.”

an estimated 151,700 to 575,400 people worldwide died from the h1n1 “swine flu” pandemic in 2009, its first year of circulation, according to the centers for disease control and prevention.

in about the same time, more than 2.5 million people worldwide have died from covid-19, according to the johns hopkins university of medicine.

dove tries to escape the emissions from paradise memorial crematory by keeping her windows and doors shut – or leaving her complex. she has stopped inviting people to her home, and some of her neighbors refrain from using their patios, she said, because they never know when the “smell is going to hit.”

“we’re not unreasonable people,” dove said. “we just need a break from this once in a while. i mean, it’s just continuously going.”

crematorium emissions depend on the materials burned in the chamber, according to a 2020 canadian study, such as natural gas used to fuel incineration chambers and particulate matter and heavy metals, such as trace amounts of mercury from dental fillings.

the cdc says obesity increases likelihood for severe illness and death from covid-19, and bodies weighing more than 200 pounds generate more smoke than those weighing less, ahearne said. paradise memorial crematory processes heavier bodies in the morning and the lighter ones in the afternoon and evening to limit visible pollution.

“the size of people that are dying of covid are larger people,” he said. “weight has a lot to do with the ability to cremate somebody, and when you can cremate them. when you have a lot of heavier people, you do those first thing in the morning.”

no matter the materials burned, or the weight of the deceased, crematoriums are allowed to release smoke visible up to 20% opacity in the air, according to maricopa county air quality regulations.

the hazardous visible aerosol particles, referred to as particulate matter, that crematoriums emit is of “minimal” concern compared with the pollution caused by vehicle traffic or backyard bonfires, said philip mcneely, director of the air quality department.

the county sets crematorium emission standards and includes regulations to test for machine efficiency, times of operation and allows for 2,500 tons, or 5 million pounds, of total material to be burned within a 12-month period. all complaints are individually investigated by the department, mcneely said.

although rare, accidents and machine malfunctions do happen, ahearne said.

a power outage march 2 interrupted an active cremation at paradise memorial and sent black smoke billowing from the chimney for 5 to 10 minutes while the system shut down, ahearne said.

“that was the worst i’ve seen,” he said. “i’ve been doing this for 50 years and it was just terrible. but once it starts, there’s nothing we can do.”

system malfunctions are not unique to paradise memorial crematory and similar situations have been reported at other crematoriums in the phoenix area.

one funeral director in sun city reported a thermocouple, a sensor used to measure temperature, malfunction and told county investigators that “black smoke was visible for about 10 minutes” during a cremation, according to county records. the thermocouple was replaced and the investigation has been closed.

despite unexpected malfunctions and the increased of cremations, the accompanying emissions still have significantly less of an environmental impact on total air quality than unregulated fires that burn at lower temperatures around 600-900 degrees, said leif abrell, an associate research scientist with the arizona laboratory for emerging contaminants at the university of arizona.

burning trash or wood used in a bonfire increases “the potential for other noncarbon dioxide pollutants” to be released into the atmosphere compared to county regulated, high-temperature burning at crematoriums, abrell said.

“that’s why one person burning trash in their backyard at a low temperature can kind of obliterate a whole bunch of work that’s done by other people (operating) at high temperatures according to regulation,” he said.

although vehicle traffic and backyard fires of of greater concern for county regulators, dove and dubner are waiting for relief from both the pandemic and the smoke wafting from the crematorium chimney.

“you can’t be inside during covid,” dove said, “because you’re not supposed to be in a closed area with people, and you can’t sit outside because sooner or later the smell is going to come up.”

ahearne said the number of cremations is incrementally decreasing, and lasting relief may be on the horizon as vaccines reach more arizonans and fewer people test positive for covid-19.

“hopefully this pandemic thing will calm down and get back to kind of normal,” he said.

—

this story originally was published on cronkite news. for more stories, visit cronkitenews.azpbs.org.

how can we know if it’s safe to breathe the very air that surrounds us?

2020 has taught us that some of our deepest problems are the ones we can’t see. through interdisciplinary efforts on behalf of the center for science communication (csc) at colorado state university, we’ve begun to understand how we can protect ourselves from one of those invisible issues.

the up-and-coming center, housed in the greater department of journalism and media communication, has goals, action plans, and tools in place to combat these issues, just as the following studies portray. it’s truly revolutionary, in that such an assortment of individuals can unite efforts to better understand an aspect of our world. the csc seeks to connect stakeholders across campus in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities to improve the science communication process. it’s a stimulating democratic approach—the csc; a center for the people, by the people—to science, which will pay dividends to research for years to come.

enter zoey rosen, the dark-haired and bright-eyed scholar, who holds a bachelor’s degree in atmospheric science (a unique combination of meteorology and physics), and a master’s degree in public communication and technology from colorado state university. she is currently in year two of her ph.d. in public communication and technology, with a focus on weather. rosen is part of the social-science side of the equation to the csc’s overall mission of effectively increasing awareness of science—communicating to general audiences how air-quality research is important through a nasa-funded program: the citizen-enabled aerosol measurements for satellites (ceams) project. headed by john volckens, mechanical engineering professor and principal investigator, the ceams team combines diverse academic backgrounds to tackle issues of air quality.

“ceams is a citizen-science project,” says rosen. “we are trying to see if the act of measuring air quality influences how we understand and think about the air from a day-to-day standpoint.”

according to the ceams blog, which has been managed by rosen along with other ceams researchers, citizen science is the collaborative effort wherein volunteers help researchers collect scientific data. in many ways, citizen-science captures the goals of the csc: bringing together academic experts, industry professionals, staff, students, and citizens to better coordinate science communication. scientists at csu have designed a machine that is sent to volunteers for setup in their backyards, dubbed the amod (aerosol mass and optical depth) sampler. see the diagram below for more information.

why and how is ceams analyzing this data? carefully, jokes rosen. “we study how the air-quality measurements change over time, compare measurements at different locations, and assess how the existence of different types of particles can impact our health,” rosen said.

rosen illustrates how this can be tricky. imagine when you were an elementary student, playing with magnets in science class. you might have been amazed when paperclips rapidly stuck to the poles, or transfixed by how two equal polar ends of magnets would simply refuse to connect. that science was understandable, tangible…visible!

“can we apply that same sort of hands-on learning to adults in communities? that’s what we’re trying to do,” rosen said. “because most of the time, we can’t see if the air quality bad or not. we have no concept of how this actually affects us—it’s just air!”

what we can’t see can hurt us

when i see snow outside, my instincts tell me to tread lightly; i don’t want to slip. but i can’t see air, so how am i supposed to know when it’s bad? according to the world health organization, air pollution is one of the leading causes of death across the globe. it worsens underlying cardiovascular and respiratory problems and has a host of short-term exposure effects when exacerbated by events like wildfires. according to the epa, the overall health effects from pollution lay on a spectrum, where the least significant effects are associated with large particle exposure for a minimal amount of time, and the direst effects are jointly associated with fine particles and longer exposures. this spectrum consists of relatively minor coughing and phlegm build-up effects, to bronchitis and asthma, finally progressing to heart failure, stroke, and premature death.

these statistics are courtesy of the world health organization.

• 23% — all estimated global deaths per year (per a 2012 who study) can be attributed to unhealthy environmental standards.
• 6.5 million — the amount of deaths that air pollution claims annually.
• 91% — the total amount of the world’s population that lives in places that exceed air-quality guidelines.

‘if people don’t understand, then what’s the point of your science?’

rosen explains how the importance of incorporating social sciences—or the human element, as she calls it—is extremely important in making sure that society understands an issue in science. increased engagement with amod devices not only provides feedback about air-quality across the nation, but indicates a profound devotion to science.  

“we ask questions at periodic stages throughout the deployment. if you’re measuring air quality for 8-10 weeks, then we give you a questionnaire before you start, one about 4 or 5 weeks in, and then one when you’re done and send your machine back,” says rosen.

anthropomorphizing—or ‘humanizing’—the situation itself has provided more opportunity for social science to analyze public motivations to contribute.

“we’ve found that participants get kind of connected to their boxes” (the amod devices). “when these boxes don’t work, it bothers them deeply,” chuckled marilee long, co-investigator within the ceams study, and health and science communication expert for the csc. “in fact, zoey and i are studying how citizens anthropomorphize the box.”

long and rosen are interested in assigning names, interaction opportunities, and even ‘wake-up-procedures’ into these amod boxes—altogether creating a more human experience for volunteers. imagine your amod-upgraded morning routine: you brush your teeth, eat a bowl of cereal, and get ready for work, as paul, your friendly patio amod, concisely tells you all the pertinent information about the air. long predicts that this human element would promote a huge uptick in motivation to learn, to record data findings, and altogether understand air quality.

the csc: highlighting the importance of social science

but ceams’ efforts aren’t alone in these studies; long and ashley anderson, both members of the csc and instructors within the jmc department, join this broad effort to teach, strategize, and improve the science communication process through a multitude of studies.

“social science is really hard to do well, because people are complex,” long paused, acknowledging the tricky power in that complexity. “it’s challenging to get people to give you their unadulterated thoughts. but when they do, it not only improves our understanding of a study—it motivates those citizen-sciences to want to learn more.”

those unadulterated thoughts are pivotal to researchers like long and anderson, as they serve to provide authentic insights into how society views public health problems. recently, the csc has examined organizational framework approaches to implementing citizen science, as described by anderson and long’s involvement with volckens and the walter scott, jr. college of engineering. 

“the project is in a bit of a holding pattern due to the pandemic, but it’s an integral part of the larger set of projects going on in the center for science communication,” anderson said. the project, an implementation of air pollution monitors called upas (ultrasonic personal air samplers, courtesy of volckens’ company access sensor technologies), is key in understanding the effect airborne chemicals have on at-risk individuals, such as firefighters. 

with amod devices dispersed to willing volunteers throughout the nation by ceams, upas technology providing accessible air pollution sensors to literally inform individuals the quality of air they’re breathing, and social scientists examining attitudes and motivations to contribute every step of the way—the csc has clearly gathered all components of academia necessary for a comprehensive analysis of air quality. these efforts summarize a greater goal of the true mission of the csc—coordinating a diverse collection of personalities, backgrounds, and interests into one body. the csc acknowledges that science can be challenging to understand, especially so with misinformation, social media, and, well, statistics—lots of statistics.

jaime jacobsen, jmc assistant professor and emmy award-winning filmmaker (specializing in science documentaries), heads this center and its goals of pursuing research-driven strategies for understanding and improving the science communication process. she explains the value in turning charts, numbers, and data into concrete information that’s easy to understand. 

“as science communicators, we are uniquely positioned to use narrative storytelling, visual metaphors, and analogies, which stem out of the latest research surrounding the science of science communication, to help inform and inspire the public to engage in the pressing issues of the day.  i’m thrilled that the csc will take a lead role on spearheading innovative collaborations across the sciences, social sciences, and humanities at csu in order to further this goal.” 

air quality, science communication; it’s a marathon, not a sprint

if science communication can foster more awareness about air quality…then would humanity begin to start making decisions for the betterment of their health? that’s the hope, argues long.

“it’s similar in a way to smoking. a single cigarette is not good for you—similarly, a single day of bad air is not good for you. would that single day cause problems for you?” long pauses, peering out at the smoke-filled skies for a moment. “no, probably not…but it’s the cumulative effect that is directly impacting our health. people must start thinking about better times to exercise or opting to stay indoors when aqi measurements are too high.”

those cumulative effects described by long might best capture the role the csc plays in public education on air quality, as well as other public health problems. as long as the csc continues consistent teaching, mentoring, training, and outreach efforts amongst its studies, society will undoubtedly reap motivational and educational benefits.

looking onward, researchers like long, anderson, rosen, and countless others working in tandem with the csc will continue their motives to understand and communicate the invisible, until we collectively progress toward less pollution-related death, less environmental tragedies like the ongoing wildfires, and perhaps most importantly—a greater appreciation for science.

researchers mengyao li, susana ferreria, and travis smith examined data between 1993 and 2010 on temperature and on self-reported mental health obtained from a state based health survey system under the center for disease control and prevention. cooler days were found to reduce the probability of reporting bad mental health days whereas hotter days, mostly after ten consecutive days, increased this probability. the probability of frequent mental distress (more than 14 days of bad mental health for the past month) was even higher during these hotter days. 

three years prior to these findings, a study published in environmental health perspectives concluded that exposure to air pollution was also related to poor mental health. long-term exposure to particulate matter (pm 2.5) was associated with depression and anxiety, and short-term exposure to pm 2.5 was associated with suicide. pm 2.5 are fine inhalable particles that can be emitted directly from sources, such as construction sites and unpaved roads, or through complex chemical reactions of pollutants emitted from power plants and automobiles. 

the release of new research on temperature and mental health is a concerning addition to the psychological health effects humans could face from air pollution. understanding these implications, li and the other researchers suggested future studies examine how community-level factors impact the mental effects of climate change. 

“i think it’s necessary to know how community-level factors like neighborhood environment, social cohesion, and also individual adaptation actions like use of air conditioning or migration, whether those things would help mitigate the effect of temperature on individual mental health,” li said. 

at local levels, air pollution is often worse in lower income areas, where industrial facilities or highways serve as point sources, increasing exposure. speaking on both temperature and air pollution, li said, “the two factors combined together would pose extra pressure on people that have more exposure in those communities.”

as poorer and less developed communities will ultimately bear the mental burdens of increased air pollution combined with hotter days, it is clear that climate change is not the great equalizer. this health disparity will grow as increased temperatures will only exacerbate the mental health decline of exposed communities. 

at a local level, air pollution varies throughout the district of columbia and is generally higher in the seventh and eight wards which are historically low-income and often minority neighborhoods. this inequality is left unaddressed because the environmental protection agency aggregates air quality data from their six high-cost monitoring stations, labeling the district with the same pollution levels despite drastic differences between communities.

fresh air d.c., a student-run and community focused research project about air quality at george washington university, seeks to create the first and only community level network of low-cost air quality monitors. these monitors would serve to fill the gaps in pollution level data throughout the district’s wards. aitana mendiguren, a student working on community outreach for the project, said, “we mainly want to educate and empower community members of wards seven and eight who are exposed to higher local levels of air pollution. using our sensors they will be able to actually monitor their community-levels with real data.”

while fresh air d.c. stresses the physical health effects of air pollution, the recently discovered associations between mental health and global warming only further support the necessity for their efforts. “people living in these wards need the hands-on tools to understand how their health is a risk,” mediguren said. 

at harvard university’s t.h. chan school of public health, researchers analyzed data on pm 2.5 levels and covid-19 deaths. this extensive information came from 3,000 u.s. counties, including up to 98% of the u.s. population, and covered data through april 4. researchers found a 15% higher covid-19 death rate in counties that averaged one microgram per cubic meter more of pm 2.5 in the air.

as the world faces a respiratory virus, it is important to understand that our lungs might not be as strong as we think.

fine particulate matter are tiny chemical particles or droplets in the air that are two and one-half micrometers or less in width. human visibility is limited to particles larger than 40 micrometers. this matter exists in materials like organic dust, airborne bacteria, construction dust, and coal particles from power plants. 

when inhaled, particulate matter carries toxic chemicals into the respiratory tract, and accumulates in the lungs while also damaging other parts of the body, according to a 2016 study published in the journal of thoracic disease.

kelly jones, a registered nurse with a doctorate in nursing science, is an expert at the national socio-environmental synthesis center researching the effects of neighborhood conditions related to health outcomes. she describes the human lungs as branch-like structures with built-in mechanisms to keep out foreign invaders. the larger particles are subjected to our bodies’ natural defenses such as coughing and sneezing.

meanwhile, “these tiny tiny little particles, especially the 2.5 particles, make it all the way down into the lungs, lining the tissue and blocking the ability for gas exchange and lung movement,” jones said. ultrafine particles, 0.1 micrometer or less, can mimic oxygen molecules, entering into our bloodstream. the chemical reactive compounds found in ultrafine particles then impair the contraction of blood vessels causing clotting.

outside of cities, large amounts of fine particulate matter exist in certain desert conditions such as the sahara. “as far as man-made particles that we could actually control, definitely in urban spaces in more densely populated areas, there’s going to be more particulate matter overall. but with the exception that there are some natural systems where there is also fine matter,” said jones.  

it’s especially hard to imagine your lungs being coated with fine grains of sand in the sahara desert.  

beth gardiner, journalist and the author of the book “choked: life and breath in the age of air pollution” said, “we know that air pollution is contributing to greatly increased rates of a whole long list of health problems from heart attacks and strokes to all kinds of respiratory problems, many types of cancer, dementia, alzheimer’s, parkinson’s disease, diabetes, the list just goes on and on.”

the harvard paper estimated if manhattan lowered its average particulate matter levels by only one microgram per cubic meter over the past 20 years, the area would likely have had 248 fewer outbreak deaths by early april. the researchers of the study wrote, “results underscore the importance of continuing to enforce existing air pollution regulations to protect human health both during and after the covid-19 crisis.”

a later study published in the journal science of the total environment examined the relationship between long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide, a chemical found in pm 2.5, and coronavirus fatalities. mapping the distribution of nitrogen dioxide across regions in italy, spain, france, and germany, scientist yaron ogden compared pollution levels to regional covid-19 mortalities. ogden’s results indicated that 78% of coronavirus fatalities were located in the five regions with the highest nitrogen dioxide concentrations. 

supporting harvard’s findings, this research stated, “long-term exposure to this pollutant may be one of the most important contributors to fatality caused by the covid-19 virus in these regions and maybe across the whole world.”

the center for disease control and prevention released new data on racial disparities in coronavirus deaths noting much higher mortalities in black communities compared to states as a whole. at local levels, air pollution is often worse in lower-income areas, where industrial facilities or highways serve as point sources, increasing exposure. 

“it’s quite likely that air pollution exposure plays a role,” gardiner said, “because we know that because of structural racism, environmental racism, and the way pollution facilities get cited, and housing systems work, we know that african americans are exposed to much higher levels of air pollution than white americans.”
 

sure, killer fog sounds like a scary plot device from a stephen king book. but 67 years ago, 20 people did die and thousands were injured over a period of five days in the southwestern pennsylvania town of donora as a result of the weather phenomenon combined with airborne pollutants from local factories.

the heavy fog, which began to blanket the town sometime on tuesday, oct. 26, 1948, became toxic as it trapped pollutants from a zinc smelting plant and various steel mills low to the ground, where residents then inhaled them.

despite efforts to evacuate residents with weak lungs, 11 deaths had already occurred in the short time following the weather change. the conditions persisted for five days, with nine more dead before the zinc factory closed and rain dispersed the fog. thousands of locals spilled into the hospital with respiratory issues. 

the disaster alerted the nation to the crisis of air pollution from factory emissions, sparking a national debate. before the tragedy in donora, the public did not widely believe that industrial air pollution could kill, but the event proved otherwise. the outcry following the fiasco paved the way for the clean air act to pass in 1955, seven years later. it was the first major law to regulate air emissions and has evolved over the years to reduce harmful chemicals in the air.

unfortunately, air and water pollution is still a very real threat to health. even today, western pennsylvania is still home to high levels of pollution from fracking (drilling for natural gas), which can cause illness in those who live close to processing stations. in carroll county, ohio, where fracking is common, exposure accounts for a higher risk of cancer. researchers concluded that lifetime cancer risk from local pollution is 2.9 in 10,000, almost triple the risk level accepted by the epa. even though the epa has confirmed the threat of pollution from this method of drilling, the topic remains controversial.

though this is one example of continued industrial pollution in the u.s., it is far from being the only threat. further, not all countries in the world play by the same rules: many countries still release masses of toxic chemicals into the environment. it begs the question, how many tragedies have to occur as a result of pollution in the future? hopefully, the world will continue to move forward in reducing industrial pollution.

(image at top: in august of 1973, sunset highlights the smog above center city in philadelphia. / photo by dick swanson/epa/u.s. national archives)

the sodium hydroxide/carbonate solution that results from step 1 is pumped into an electrolysis cell through which an electric current is passed. the electricity results in the release of the carbon dioxide which is collected and stored for subsequent reaction.

optionally, a dehumidifier condenses the water out of the air that is being passed into the sodium hydroxide spray tower. the condensed water is passed into an electrolyser where an electric current splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen. water might be obtained from any source so long as it is or can be made pure enough to be placed in the electrolyser.

the carbon dioxide and hydrogen are reacted together to make a hydrocarbon mixture, the reaction conditions being varied depending on the type of fuel that is required.

there are a number of reaction paths already in existence and well known in industrial chemistry that may be used to make the fuels.

thus a reverse-water-gas shift reaction may be used to convert a carbon dioxide/water mixture to a carbon monoxide/hydrogen mixture called syn gas. the syn gas mixture can then be further reacted to form the desired fuels using the fisher-tropsch (ft) reaction.

alternatively, the syn gas may be reacted to form methanol and the methanol used to make fuels via the mobil methanol-to gasoline reaction (mtg).

for the future, it is highly likely that reactions can be developed whereby carbon dioxide and hydrogen can be directly reacted to fuels.

the afd product will require the addition of the same additives used in current fuels to ease starting, burn cleanly and avoid corrosion problems, to turn the raw fuel into a full marketable product. however as a product it can be blended directly with gasoline, diesel and aviation fuel.