audio story by joshua rosenstein

nestled in the eastern suburbs of sydney, australia, jesmond (jes) sammut lectures his students on topics in coastal resource management. sammut is an associate professor at the university of new south wales, and also leads the unsw aquaculture research group. aquaculture, which is the farming of aquatic organisms, is seldom discussed by most people around the world, yet it can lead to enormous benefits.

sammut’s research has taken him to vietnam and indonesia to study shrimp farming, india to train local veterinarian scientists, and the philippines for fish farming. yet, some of his most impactful work has occurred in papua new guinea, where he trained a research team that subsequently worked with the national fisheries authority of papua new guinea to improve tilapia production and fish farming practices.

according to sammut, the work conducted by his team and partner groups has led to drops in crime, tribal war, and antisocial behavior, while also boosting self-esteem, cooperation, and financial and food security. his experiences have also come with challenges and lessons learned.

this podcast intends to introduce you to jes sammut and the power of his aquaculture research in papua new guinea.

“from birth one of my passions has been the ocean,” doall said, a lasting enthusiasm that ultimately led to his career in regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration. while his days of skipping class to bum it at the beach may be over, you can still find doall in the bays of long island, dedicating hours to researching and reviving the marine organisms that provide innumerable benefits to the ecosystem he calls home. 

at the beginning of doall’s education in marine biology, regenerative aquaculture — the farming of marine species in open waters to bolster habitat quality — was not remotely common in the u.s., let alone something on doall’s mind. but, having always had gardens growing up, doall found that the field of ocean aquaculture brought together his passions for the ocean and for growing things.

doall was first exposed to regenerative aquaculture 20 years ago while managing a research service facility in long island. the nature conservancy had started a hard clam and oyster restoration program in long island’s great south bay and reached out to doall for his analytic expertise. bivalves, such as clams and oysters, are essential to ocean ecosystems, because they suck up excess nutrients and sediment from waterways, improving water quality and preventing harmful algal blooms. at the nature conservancy, doall grew shellfish in cages across the bay to study how different marine environments would support these species. 

there, he realized how much he enjoyed growing the oysters and rebuilding marine ecosystems, so he dove deeper into open water aquaculture by establishing the first oyster restoration projects in new york harbor (nyh). while working at these sites, he aimed to use oysters as solely an environmental tool — the harbor’s pollution meant organisms wouldn’t be safe for consumption — but later he “had the epiphany that oysters do the same thing in an aquaculture setting as they do in nature.” that is, by growing oysters for human consumption, these filter feeders would naturally improve water quality by consuming excess nutrients and provide a sustainable source of fresh seafood at the same time.

inspired, doall started his own oyster farm in 2008: montauk shellfish company. he took a lot of pride in being an oyster farmer, stating that “one of the most important activities you can do is to grow food and feed your community.” and feed his community he did. doall was on the cusp of an “oyster renaissance” and would witness montauk take off beyond his expectations. 

during his time as an oyster farmer, doall took a trip up to maine and was introduced to a new sea crop that would later inspire his research: kelp. doall was interested in crop diversification for his farm and learned from some of the first u.s. kelp farmers that this sea veggie is a great complement to shellfish because of their opposite growth seasons (kelp in the winter, shellfish in the summer). 

though he sold his farm in 2017, doall still very much considers himself a farmer in his current role as associate director for bivalve restoration and aquaculture at stony brook university. as a scientist, doall is well positioned to pursue kelp through research projects in long island waters that do not yet allow commercial kelp farming due to a decade-long battle for obtaining permits and expanding processing capacity.

over the past four years, doall has been tirelessly dedicated to bringing the benefits of kelp to long island. as with oysters, kelp sucks excess nitrogen out of the water, helping to keep our oceans clean. combining the two creatures creates a marine-cleaning superteam to counteract the eutrophication — excessive nutrient pollution — that has long plagued long island. further, kelp captures carbon dioxide from the water column as it photosynthesizes. that carbon gets removed from the ocean when the kelp is harvested, making seaweed a tool for fighting local ocean acidification that threatens the health of our marine ecosystems, including many of the species we depend on for food. doall developed a specialized technique for growing kelp in the shallow coastal waters of long island that are only knee or waist deep, as opposed to traditional kelp farming that is done in much deeper waters. he was impressively able to grow 12-foot long kelp fronds in only 6 feet of water. this compact feat can help not only shallow-water ocean farmers but also other species residing in shallow bays, where poor water flow otherwise means poor water quality.

the nutrient-extraction capabilities of farming kelp are especially important in long island. as doall said of his hometown, “long islanders love their lawns and golf courses.” he tells me about the truckloads of fertilizer that are brought in during the warmer months, dumping nitrogen all across the island. a farmer at heart, doall envisions growing forests of kelp along the coast to absorb the nitrogen runoff from shore. once harvested, this kelp can be developed into nitrogen-rich fertilizer, equipped with other micronutrients and biostimulants, that can be used throughout the community. it would be a closed nitrogen loop, lowering the demand for imported fertilizer and delivering environmental and economic benefits to the island. doall plans to explore such a system’s feasibility this summer through garden studies on kelp-based fertilizer’s benefits.

doall’s dedication to restoring his home seas has carried him through a variety of challenges. despite support from large environmental groups such as the nature conservancy and pew charitable trust, regenerative aquaculture must compete with a variety of stakeholders on the water. recreational boaters, commercial fishermen, and even wind surfers have opposed doall’s projects.

“in the end, all these groups recognize the value of regenerative farming, but a lot of people don’t want it in an area where they’re doing something,” he said. there is also a so-called “social carrying capacity” for aquaculture: once over ~5% of the coastline is occupied by ocean farmers, “people start freaking out” and are quick to complain about the oyster farms visible from their backyard. nevertheless, doall has found that a healthy, bustling ocean can unify disparate marine interests.

at the end of the day, doall believes in his mission to support ocean farming and rebuild shellfish populations in his home waters. while he knows his focal solutions to climate change are not the only solutions, the benefits of regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration cannot be ignored. aquaculture projects secure jobs and income while nutrient bioextraction revitalizes the ecosystem, a win-win for coastal economies and environments. moreover, because of overfishing and marine habitat degradation, fishing communities that have long relied on the ocean for their sense of identity are losing their cultural ties. luckily, according to doall, “regenerative aquaculture is a way to bring that cultural identity back…so there’s a win-win-win.”

you will always find doall working away in the waters of long island, happy as a clam, because, “when do you plant a victory flag? never.” the fight for climate-resilient solutions never stops, but local, restorative projects like these continue to provide hope for a greener future.

paving the way for the future of new zealand’s aquaculture industry, the cawthron institute is collaborating with te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to study the native species of karengo. this red seaweed grows along intertidal shorelines, along the rocky east coast of the south island, along with some parts of the north island coast. the research program, “he tipu moana he oranga tangata: revealing karengo as a high-value functional food,” predominantly took place in august and september, when the karengo flourished from around the kaikoura to bluff regions. similar to japanese nori, karengo has been used for centuries as a traditional māori food source. the researchers have been working closely with indigenous people to better understand the seaweed’s capabilities and māori preparation. the study received $3 million to perform their research, courtesy of the nz ministry of business, innovation and employment. 

the aim of the study is four-fold: in order to identify the seaweed, develop a method for algae protein extraction to retain important components; assess the value of the algae when used in food products; analyze the composition; determine the health and nutritional benefits.

with these objectives in mind, the team hopes to help develop a high-value industry with this karengo seaweed at its center. in the words of team researcher and head of analytical research & development at the cawthron institute, tom wheeler, the end goal is to develop karengo-infused foods that are “desirable as well as being nutritious.”

in the process of experimentation, wheeler and his team cataloged karengo samples and completed dna-based sequencing to identify each karengo species. they identified each species based on form and structure (morphology), as well as the genetic basis. the team extracted the protein composition of each sample through the processes of transcription of dna to rna and translation from rna to protein. through holistic categorization, the team could distinguish between outwardly similar forms of algae.

wheeler said in a statement that it could take between five to ten years for the program to conclude with the results they have in mind, but much has already been discovered. through their protein-sequencing program, the team has already identified five species and 2 genera. they have found, to date, two species in the porphyra genus and three in pyropia. all of these species were found to have valuable nutritional properties, some including all essential amino acids, micronutrients such as iron, and anti-inflammatory bioactives. these bioactives have been shown in other studies to help diminish pain and inflammation caused by conditions such as chronic lung and inflammatory bowel diseases. in an interview, dr. wheeler highlighted the importance of these findings, citing their nuance in a “plant-based protein from a source that hasn’t really been utilized so far in terms of the food industry sense.”

karengo is no new discovery. professor mithen, chief scientist for the new zealand high value nutrition national science challenge, notes that “karengo is part of the exceedingly rich native flora of aotearoa new zealand.” what is worth the $3 million in funding is the massive potential of the seaweed industry for new zealand. mithen continues, saying, “harvesting karengo in a sustainable manner will lead to the development of new foods to benefit the health of the people of new zealand and offer innovative export opportunities for business.” as more people are beginning to realize the implications of the dairy and meat industries, the demand for alternative protein sources continues to increase. another study on the structure of algae noted that the physical composition of algae makes it well suited for making nutraceuticals, or high-value nutritional supplements. plant-based proteins are derived from all sorts of resources, with often a lessened environmental impact and heightened nutrition. 

a new high-value industry would be monumental for new zealand’s aquaculture industry, joining the broad market of fin-fish and shellfish. research such as this project will help drive investment into the seaweed industry. wheeler emphasizes that “this kind of research and development will inform investment and policy making that supports the sustainable long-term growth of the industry”. it is the hope of the research team and those funding their research that seaweed will become the third pillar of new zealand’s aquaculture industry.

there is still much exploring left uncovered in the realm of seaweed research. along the coast of new zealand alone, there are hundreds of varieties of native seaweeds. their unknown composition and bioactive potential alludes to years of future discovery. 

it would be unjust to study karengo and its nutrition potential without acknowledging the traditions of the māori people who have been using this seaweed for centuries. researchers from the cawthron institute have collaborated closely with both te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to incorporate indigenous perspective into their work. alongside these organizations, the researchers learned about traditional cultivation practices and preparation methods, as the māori have been using karengo for its nutritional value as a staple in their diets. as this project continues, the team has acknowledged the importance of sustainable development of karengo cultivation and the seaweed market. once the capitalist actors become involved, it is often difficult to maintain sustainability as a priority. yet, without a positive environmental perspective, an irresponsible exploitation of karengo would quickly decimate the variety of species. 

although there are many components to sustainable development of such industries, it is essential to establish safe practices for the long-term wellbeing of the ecosystem. the project will work alongside local partners to determine the most conscientious methods for harvesting and preparation, with heavy emphasis on indigenous knowledge. it will be interesting to see in twenty years how this project and others like it redefine new zealand’s aquaculture industry and the lasting impacts –– the good, the bad, and the algae. 

i recently had the opportunity to speak to the indigenous peoples’ liaison for north america with the food and agriculture organization of the united nations, mikaila way. today, her work is focused on building relationships and partnerships with the indigenous nations in canada and the united states focused on revitalizing indigenous peoples’ food systems. 

indigenous peoples’ communities’ challenges and priorities of “food security, food sovereignty, and health have accelerated and intensified during the covid-19 pandemic,” she told me in an interview. way began her job with fao one month before covid-19 changed the world. concerned about how the pandemic would affect indigenous peoples’ communities, she worked with the fao indigenous peoples unit and the liaison office for north america to support communications and network building internationally and regionally. throughout the regional and global coordination, indigenous youth have been and continue to be central in the work to protect and revitalize their food systems and the ongoing response to the pandemic. 

here is our conversation about the expanded and existing collaboration between fao and indigenous youth. the transcript was edited for length and clarity.

q: what do you do in your job? 

a: many different things! the main objective of my work is to connect the work of the indigenous peoples’ unit based in fao headquarters in rome with indigenous peoples in the north america region (canada and usa), with the fao liaison office for north america in washington dc, so we can implement a coordinated work plan. we have done amazing activities, including an introductory series of dialogues with more than 120 indigenous leaders, a high-level expert seminar on north american indigenous peoples´ food systems, a webinar highlighting indigenous women’s role in food systems, and a film screening with the producers of the documentary, “gather” which i strongly recommend all the readers to watch. in preparation toward the un food systems summit, we have coordinated with indigenous youth of north america to develop unified messages and key priorities for global leaders to include in plans for food system transformation. 

q: with the impacts of covid-19 and climate change, how is fao prioritizing opportunities to support and empower indigenous youth?

a: since 2017, the fao has offered an indigenous youth internship program, which is now remote. it is a yearly opportunity that goes out to all regions for indigenous youth internships at fao headquarters in rome, as well as regional offices around the world. the internship supports efforts related to raising awareness on the sustainable development goals (sdg), particularly sdg2 to achieve zero hunger through wide dissemination of fao’s work in this area, with a specific focus on including the voices and opinions of indigenous peoples’ communities.

fao’s focus comes in direct response to the loud call echoed by indigenous youth and elders for global support in the intergenerational transmission of knowledge and empowerment. this transfer of intergenerational knowledge is one of the key priorities for indigenous peoples’ climate change adaptation strategies. we are working with the global indigenous youth caucus as well as global indigenous youth leaders to ensure their voices and priorities are centered in global debates for covid-19 response, collective rights, and climate change adaptations. 

q: what are the highlights activities of the fao collaboration with indigenous youth?

a: fao offers various opportunities for indigenous youth to participate in the (october) world food day celebrations and the world food forum––from attending online events to participating in the poster and poetry contest. fao north america will be hosting indigenous youth for a world food forum launch event on october 6. the following week, they will be hosting indigenous chefs and producers from the americas for an indigenous peoples’ day and world food day event celebrating indigenous peoples’ cuisine across the region and emphasizing the importance of intercultural education about food systems for indigenous youth.  

over the past year and a half, indigenous youth have been contributing to the global dialogues leading up to the un food systems summit (september 23, 2021). during the summit, youth can use social media to make an impact. social media is a powerful tool to raise their voices and make sure they are seen.

this summer, fao and the global indigenous youth caucus organized the global forum on indigenous youth. due to  covid-19, the forum was held online. the silver lining of the online event was, indigenous youth and fao were able to bring together a larger global audience, and it was powerful to see people calling from their communities and territories. the global sessions focused on bringing together speakers on climate change, innovation, ecological knowledge, food systems transformation, the path forward, and the transmission of intergenerational traditional knowledge. the outcomes from these discussions were reflected in a strong statement and recommendations on sustainable and resilient food systems for global leaders to reference.

there are many other upcoming activities. follow the @faoindigenous and @faonorthamerica twitter accounts to get all the information from firsthand. 

information on the opportunities above, as well as fao’s partner organizations that provide similar opportunities, is available on the fao indigenous peoples unit website, as well as fao north america’s site.

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about this series: the planet forward-fao summer storytelling fellows work was sponsored by the north america office of the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao), and the fellows were mentored by lisa palmer, gw’s national geographic professor of science communication and author of “hot, hungry planet.”

“loko i`a,” or fishponds, have nourished hawaiians and sustained cultural practices since ancient times. some 488 fishponds once dotted the hawaiian islands. while few fishponds remain operational, renovating ponds and maintaining them includes reuniting native hawaiians with one of their most honored traditional practices. 

restoring loko ea began over a decade ago. in 2008, volunteers started an informal community workday program. a year later, kamehameha schools suggested the volunteers create a non-profit that would have “kuleana,” or responsibility, for the restoration. james estores and venson lee founded the mālama loko ea foundation, a non-profit that has since expanded its activities beyond physical work; it now educates the community, fosters a return of traditional native hawaiian practices, and raises fish and food for the community.

when the pandemic hit the organization did not spend their time idly; instead, they sought new ways to reunite and support the community. they applied for a cares act support grant, which allowed them to do outreach by bringing people in and to provide nutrients and food resources to the community in the form of hot and ready plates distributed at the north shore food bank. continuing within cdc guidelines, the mālama loko ea foundation held a food drive where they provided about 400 plates a day to their community, with the help of a few community members, which was significantly economically impacted by covid-19.

“the food drive had been happening for years through a partnership with the north shore food bank, but we were able to increase it through the help of the grant. the entire situation was a pretty amazing sight. also, sad because we’re providing food for the community but hard to see the demand was so high and it kept growing and growing every month,” sayo costantino, loko ea’s operations and education program director, said. 

this food drive not only allowed them to provide for their community but also create a stronger sense of the community. with recent loosening restrictions, they are slowly able to host groups again, as more people came by to “talk story,” ask when they can volunteer, and talk about the food they ate during the food drive.

while the community has always been central to the work of the mālama loko ea foundation, it began in an effort to restore the land from its overgrown and unmaintained state. 

“(loko ea) wasn’t helped and invasive grasses were covering over and the community was not allowed in,” costantino said. “the community felt that as a big sore and wanted access and wanted to do restoration here.” 

in seeking to return to traditional native hawaiian practices, and ultimately raise fish and food for the community, education comes first. “the education is important right now because people don’t know these fishponds can be an actual food source and we want to get that there and be that example for this community,” costantino said. “we may not be able to produce for everyone in hawaii, but we can produce what we are able.”

loko ea is doing this by facilitating a fish parting system in which they take what the fishpond naturally gives, instead of pushing the system to a potential breaking point. “profit is not the goal; it’s for our community,” costantino said. the pond produces between 300-500 pounds of fish per acre per year, which provides for the community and alleviates the need for other sources of food. this is not simply the work of the staff, but also the community who assists in this yearly production.

using education as the most immediate tool in this restorative process, loko ea offers a variety of educational programs for all ages. beginning at their roots, community workdays are open to all age groups. the work is based on the needs of the pond. 

“usually what we like to do with volunteers is, if it’s a community workday, we will start with an introduction with the history of the pond so that whoever is here will have an opportunity to learn about the place they will steward at and get a perspective that is suited to better understand the impact the work will have not just for the place but also the surrounding area,” makua perry, loko ea’s malama ‘Āina outreach coordinator and technician, said. 

after this, volunteers move into “malama ʻāina,” or work, which sometimes includes water activities such as pulling weeds. they also might remove invasive species, repair rock walls, plant native plants on the property, or even clear the land to plant in the future. some volunteers simply help prepare for an event by transporting things around the pond or helping with administrative tasks. “no day in loko ea is the same, and it really depends on what she needs from you when you come,” costantino said.

workdays are not the only opportunities that loko ea provides for the community. for those who are able to commit more time they also offer a variety of leadership, mentorship, and internship programs. these are opportunities to not only learn but act––not only for the land but also to ensure the survival and cultural continuation of their people.

after proudly helping their community in the midst of the pandemic and forging new connections, loko ea plans to maintain this momentum moving forward through the power of “mo’olelo.” 

“when it comes to history and tradition, genealogical connections to place, and people, mo’olelo plays a huge part in all of those things,” perry said. “at loko ea, there is a framework that has been created by a generation of storytellers within our culture that helps us understand what we do or don’t see with our eyes because it’s not there. it’s those types of stories that are traveled through our ancestors that kinda create and maintain the cultural integrity of space and the people.”

he continued, “look at the genealogical chant of the kumulipo, written for a chief who was born and recited this 2000 long long history that extends from po which is darkness and created all of these living beings. life starts in the ocean within our genealogical chant. through this chant, we see the story that is told through the creation of the world, and creation of hawaii and man to walk on this earth.”

embedded in this chant are lessons, behavior management, etiquette, and so many layers, hidden layers where they can unravel some things through mo’olelo. makua said, “land is everything that flows through it and everything that grows through it. that’s why it is important to teach protocol, sacredness to land, and culturally significant places like this; there is cultural and spiritual sacredness and it is something that needs to be nurtured. use it for the benefit of all things involved, and learn how to feed your people for generations and generations.”

witnessing the sheer passion of the staff and the community members, i am certain that in due time this is exactly what they will do. the mālama loko ea foundation is not just an organization, but it is becoming a home and beacon of light for many community members on the north shore of hawaii where native hawaiian traditions and practices are being returned to the “ʻāina.” they are reclaiming agriculture and aquaculture work in hawaii and showing the community why these fields are important so that hopefully the next generation will also give back to the land. just as she did for me, when you visit, loko ea will tell you what she needs.

for more information on how you can get involved with the mālama loko ea foundation, please check out their website here: https://www.lokoea.org/. also, if you’re interested in learning more about the history of loko ea and the surrounding area of haleʻiwa, please see diane naomi canon’s story.

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about this series: the planet forward-fao summer storytelling fellows work was sponsored by the north america office of the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao), and the fellows were mentored by lisa palmer, gw’s national geographic professor of science communication and author of “hot, hungry planet.”

ancient hawaiians created a system of fishponds that were sacred, sustainable to nature, and structured societal roles within the native hawaiian class system. at the height of native hawaiian society, between 700 and 800 years ago, this traditional aquaculture system numbered as many as 488 fishponds across the hawaiian islands and supplied food to entire communities. by 1901, just 99 fishponds were in use; and in the 20th century, most stopped producing fish.

loko ea’s malama ‘Āina is one of the fishponds that is being brought back to life. 

native hawaiians stopped maintaining loko ea and other fishponds when a more western society came into hawaii. at that time, people found other work and they stopped managing the natural resources and cultural practices that had previously sustained the food supply, explained makua perry, outreach coordinator and technician at loko ea. “we see elsewhere a huge mindset in the mind of our native people and that’s where we see development and a lot of businesses taking over hawaii and oahu, which has caused us not to see very many fish ponds anymore,” said perry, adding that pearl harbor was the most densely populated area of fishponds. now just two to four are subjects of restoration attempts.

he continued, “back in the days when it came to stewardship of the land, the currency was a trading and barter system, not a money management system; it was a shared balance between the resources we find in the plane.” 

with the introduction of western ideas by colonizers also came the introduction of the capitalistic mindset it holds close, and native hawaiians had to adapt in order to survive. 

“mid-1800’s going into the 1900’s, the plantation era changed and brought the culture into a new concept and understanding that they need to make money to sustain their families and the new westernized way of living,” makua said.

the power of storytelling can be traced back to the beginning of man. whether it be the cave paintings of early cave dwellers to the first written artifacts of the sumerians, humanity has been fascinated with telling stories that have informed their future generations and given insight to strangers of their practices, culture, and ways of life. this is no different in native hawaiians as “mo‘olelo,” or storytelling, is embedded deeply in the hawaiian culture. however, mo‘olelo are not just stories, they are a way for people to explain how the world works. hawaiian culture teaches that finding a balance with and respect for the natural world is critical.

stemming back hundreds of years to the first inhabitants or the first migration of the first people to the islands of hawai’i, today known as native hawaiians, were the first islanders in the pacific to co-exist with ponds through fish farming. specifically beginning on the island of maui, there is a mo’olelo that is shared and passed down within native hawaiian communities and with anyone interested in learning more about native hawaiian practices of a specific man named ku‘ula-kai.

ku‘ula-kai was said to be one of the first prominent land stewards within the island of maui. 

he had a human body but was possessed with “mana kupua,” or supernatural powers, in directing and controlling the fish of the sea. while living at leho’ula with his wife, he dedicated his time to fishing. he constructed a fishpond next to his house named after himself, near the shore where the surf breaks, and stocked his pond with many kinds of fish. this place was meant to be sacred, or “kapu,” for the fishing; here he offered his first fish caught to the fish god. it was reported all over hana that ku‘ula-kai was then given a gift: fish became “laka loa,” or obedient, to his command.

having had this very special ability to steward and raise marine life in a significant way for the benefit of the native hawaiian communities, one way that he thought to elevate the relationship between man and animals or other types of living beings within the island ecosystem was to create a rock wall structure that extended out into the reef systems in our near-shore fisheries and that ultimately created an amazing estuary and rich ecosystem that connected both salt and freshwater, creating a brackish water environment for the fish to live prosperously. it was said that in hana maui, the east side of maui, ku‘ula-kai created the very first fishpond created hundreds of years ago. the ahu pua’a system was created through this practice and altered depending on specific districts, in which this fishpond system is still practiced today. in fact, the remnants of those historical sites are even still noticeable today through efforts of restoring these ancient fishponds.

the ahu pua’a system was created many generations ago by an “ali’i,” chief or chiefess, named māʻilikūkahi, one of the more prominent chiefs on the island of oahu. in those times of warfare, there were many chiefs and chiefesses, as well was commoners, who struggled to figure out their responsibility to their land, villages, and, ultimately, families regarding their jurisdiction within certain spaces of an island or from the mountain to the sea. in an attempt to bring more order to society, māʻilikūkahi created the ahu pua’a system. ahu is the hawaiian word for altar or space to give offerings, and pua’a is the word for pig. ahu pua’a is a pig-like altar to symbolize the importance of balance and protocol of resources to ensure the avoidance of overuse and taking from others. 

when māʻilikūkahi created this system, he parceled out the islands into smaller districts called ahupua`a, which extended from the mountain down to the ocean. if these small districts are brought together, they create what is called “mokus.” mokus are larger land districts that are given names (like kona, located in the waikiki district) and based upon the direction or the space that they are located on the island. these borders and land districts created a more sustainable way of living and created order within “ali’i,” or commoner class systems, for each person to understand their role in society and where to obtain the resources that were created.

this story of the decline of hawaiian fishponds is not a unique one. with the rise of colonization, western ideologies continued to engulf the world; and many indigenous communities were either forced or incentivized to leave their traditional practices behind. with the development and industrialization witnessed in hawaii, “fields in agriculture and aquaculture are seen as lesser than,” makua said. this is a discouraging fact that has perpetuated many native hawaiians from returning to cultural practices such as the development of fishponds.

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about this series: the planet forward-fao summer storytelling fellows work was sponsored by the north america office of the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao), and the fellows were mentored by lisa palmer, gw’s national geographic professor of science communication and author of “hot, hungry planet.”

aquaculture is “the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of marine plants and animals.” which can be facilitated in bodies of water and in large tanks on land. however, the intent behind aquaculture isn’t merely to create mass networks of fish-farms. rather, the idea is to build sustainable, individualized farms that cultivate specific species complementary to their environments. with 90% of the world’s large fish stocks being threatened by overfishing, this developing field is becoming increasingly relevant. 

aquaculture is in its infancy in oman; the country has pursued projects in earnest while acknowledging aquaculture as a crucial “key pillar” to diversify its economy. however, resource allocation and policy work remain. still, many remain eager to see how it could evolve. rumaitha al busaidi is an omani marine scientist who has supervised a number of successful aquaculture projects in the country. according to her, aquaculture has the potential to serve dual purposes both economically and environmentally, helping the country to slowly diversify its economy away from oil and gas. 

following a devastating cyclone in 2007, many traditional farms began hemorrhaging profits as their groundwater inputs had become salinated. al busaidi believes that building sustainable fisheries at these sites can help farmers and oceans recover from the major hit. tilapia fish do not occur naturally in oman, but aquaculture has helped farmers to explore a new source of revenue.

“how do you utilize a source now that’s no longer viable 100% for full-scale agriculture and use it to kind of close the loop and use it for another resource? that’s when fish [farming] came about,” says al busaidi.

oman is merely a case study of the potential of aquaculture, as it is gradually becoming a dynamic industry across the globe. 35 countries produced more farmed than wild-caught fish in 2014, according to the national oceanic and atmospheric association. the u.s. aquaculture industry produced 626 million pounds of seafood in 2017, according to paul hawken’s drawdown. 

while the solution can clearly create food, the potential to scale back the effects of climate change is especially fascinating. seaweed, for example, has been hailed as an unexpected source of biofuel. the marine plant gets the bulk of its weight from oil that can be converted into biofuel for cars, trucks, and even airplanes. the world’s energy needs could be met if 3% of the world’s oceans were set aside for seaweed farming, according to drawdown. 

one of the most notable things about aquaculture is that it has split off into a number of promising sub-technologies. “oyster-tecture,” for example, is an emerging field within aquaculture that focuses on “artificial oyster reefs and floating gardens to help protect coastal communities from future hurricanes sea-level rise and storm surges,” according to drawdown.

meanwhile, oysters are also able to absorb large amounts of carbon and, more importantly, filter out nitrogen. maryland state is dedicated to the restoration of oyster reefs on its eastern shore while oyster farming. each year, its harris creek reefs are estimated to remove an amount of nitrogen equivalent to 20,000 bags of fertilizer—a service valued at more than $1.7 million, according to the chesapeake bay foundation.

alas, aquaculture isn’t exactly a climate plan buzzword. much of the text of the green new deal and the biden plan for climate change and environmental justice centers on land-based approaches. in oman at least, aquaculture farms are nowhere near becoming the norm. 98% of fishing fleets in the country are traditional fisheries run by local fishermen, according to al busaidi. however, she maintains that the promise of a highly-developed aquaculture industry shouldn’t be ignored, especially when it comes to engaging young people in the conversation. 

“it’s a profession that a lot of young people are moving away from because it’s not cool anymore to be a fisherman,” says al busaidi. “much of the work is around determining how we make aquaculture cool again. how do we make fisheries cool?” 

cool-factor or not, aquaculture could be the oceans’ saving grace. environmentalists have asked how to save the oceans from overfishing, pollution, and the increasingly visible effects of climate change. however, maybe that inquiry should be turned on its head. maybe seas and oceans can be developed to be self-sufficient, and ultimately capable of protecting the planet. 

the field requires quite a bit of bolstering, but in the interim, countries can explore dedicating resources toward specialized aquaculture farms, while distancing themselves from the fishing practices that have resulted in today’s environmental dilemmas. the rise of aquaculture is a testament to the fact that when it comes to new technologies and community-oriented sustainability solutions, discovery is nonstop.

many western people think of seafood as one category: fish. as jessica gephart, an environmental scientist and professor at american university said in an interview, “we talk about it (seafood) as one group in the same way we might talk about chicken or beef, but really it represents 2000 species that are captured or cultivated around the world.” 

seafood is more than fish

the term seafood refers to a diverse array of organisms from fish to cephalopods (octopus, squid, cuttlefish, etc.) to algae (phytoplankton, seaweed), among others.

we often limit our seafood choices to only fish, leaving the rest of the sea in a tank. 

how can we expand the conversation around seafood — and why should we?

ole mouritsen, physicist and professor of gastrophysics and culinary food innovation at the university of copenhagen, answers, “it’s a matter of elevating people’s knowledge of what seafood is.” 

mouritsen’s exploration of cephalopods and algae began as an interest in japanese cuisine. his curiosity led him to years of research surrounding these organisms and their role in food systems. he has worked alongside scientists and chefs to explore the nutritional compounds and flavor found in these species. in his recent paper, a role for macroalgae and cephalopods in sustainable eating, mouritsen claims we should look further to octopus, squid, seaweed and other aquatic organisms for a lessened environmental impact and greater health benefits. his research calls for a change to “consume marine food in a more diverse and insightful manner, including eating from lower trophic levels and limiting bycatch and waste” (mouritsen & styrbæk, 2018, p. 2). by consuming these compounds at the source, we are able to maximize the nutritional value of these foods. typically 90% of nutrients are lost as they move up the food chain through consumption. marine seaweed is on the lower end of the food chain, and dense in micronutrients. cephalopods are generally on a higher trophic level, while still retaining much of their nutrient density. when we eat the organisms towards these lower trophic levels (compared to large fish, cows, pigs, etc.), we consume the richest nutrient components, with fewer calories. 

role of cephalopods & algae in a nutrient-rich diet

raw, boiled, fermented, alive, fluorescent, it’s all edible, mostly.

beyond their delectable flavor, these two types of organisms provide omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. the human body cannot synthesize these nutrients on our own, so we must seek them out in our food. micronutrients including iodine, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium are also found in many species of cephalopods and algae. all of these nutrients are essential for our health and brain function (mouritsen & schmidt, 2020).

beyond nutritional value, one of the huge strengths of seafood is the diversity, explained gephart. not only are there over 2000 species of seafood organisms, but they are “found in all climatic belts on the planet and they can be harvested in the wild or farmed in aquaculture” (mouritsen & schmidt, 2020, p. 2). 

umami

mouritsen highlights in an interview that when it comes to diet “taste comes first — after that you can talk about nutrition, health, calories, and sustainability.” the central component of mouritsen’s research related to seafood is the umami flavor found in cephalopods and algae. umami, is considered “the essence of deliciousness” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8). found in a variety of cephalopods and algae, “umami may be a part of the solution to provide healthier, less caloric and more satisfying meals” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8) — while adding the same delicious savory flavor we’re used to. the umami-rich seafood plays the role of an alternative to salt or sugar. replacing additives with seaweed and other umami-rich foods can “reduce the fat content by up to 30%… and reduce salt intake up to 50 % without reducing while retaining palatability” (mouritsen, 2016, p.8). this work has also involved experimentation with the use of umami as seasoning for vegetables in an effort to make a plant-based diet more palatable for omnivores.the craft of preparation

the reason most americans find cephalopods and seaweed unappetizing is the texture. cephalopods get their texture from collagen, which makes up their muscular structure. in his research, mouritsen speaks to the value of proper preparation, describing for example how improperly prepared squid can transform from a subtle, tender dish to a rubbery, greasy mess. japanese cuisine offers models of how to handle these meats. we may look to their example, mouritsen believes, to see “as with other types of meat this can be handled by culinary insight, craftsmanship, and scientific knowledge”(2020, p. 3). for these more uncommon types of seafood, it will take culinary insight and public communication for them to find their way onto western grocery store shelves.

looking to the future

feeding the growing human population will require culinary innovation. mouritsen notes that in order to meet our needs, “we would have to use all the resources of mother earth,” including cephalopods and algae — even if it takes some getting used to. seafood represents an under-utilized, sustainable alternative to more expensive, carbon-producing food products. mainstreaming seafood — in all its variety — will make the world easier to feed. 

when it comes to food you can’t really force it. it takes a long time. it probably took a long time for americans to learn how to eat pizza.” -ole mouritsen

works cited

mouritsen, o. g. (2016). deliciousness of food and a proper balance in fatty acid composition as means to improve human health and regulate food intake. flavour, 5(1). doi:10.1186/s13411-016-0048-2

mouritsen, o. g., & schmidt, c. v. (2020). a role for macroalgae and cephalopods in sustainable eating. frontiers in psychology, 11, [1402]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01402 

mouritsen, o. g., & styrbæk, k. (2018). cephalopod gastronomy – a promise for the future. frontiers in communications, 3, [38]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2018.00038

rio verde, arizona—at bartlett lake and other reservoirs around the state, arizona game & fish department volunteers are building plastic cubes to serve as fish habitat. 

the “fish cities” are called georgia cubes, which were first developed by the georgia department of natural resources. the cube’s design looks like a long-lost prop from a cheap sci-fi movie. pvc pipe is assembled into a 4-foot cube and secured with glue. holes are drilled into lengths of flexible tubing that are woven through and attached to the pvc cube. 

cord is used to lash two cubes together, cinder blocks are attached, then they’re dropped off the back of a pontoon boat. several hundred “fish cities” have been deployed in roosevelt and bartlett lakes this year. 

“these structures are beneficial to the lakes of arizona, especially these low-elevation desert lakes because they’re all very old,” said david weedman, aquatic habitat program manager for game & fish. “so at the end of this part of this phase of the project, we’ll have about 500 structures out here (at bartlett).”

the beds of artificial lakes in arizona are often inhospitable to fish because they’re simply desert floor and soil covered by water, weedman said. 

bartlett lake was created by damming the verde river in 1939. 

“most of the natural structure, the flooded trees that were in existence when the lakes were built, have all decomposed and broke down,” weedman said. “basically the shoreline is a barren sand and gravel flat. very poor habitat for fish.”

anglers also will benefit from the program. gps coordinates and photographs of the georgia cubes are published on the arizona game & fish website to guide anglers to where the fish are. if an angler has a boat equipped with sonar, they’ll also be able to find the cubes underwater.

hunter pauling is an intern with the department’s aquatic habitat program, as well as an avid fisherman. he’s excited for this project, especially because he’s at bartlett lake often. 

“at roosevelt (lake), we installed the same exact structures and got excellent feedback from pro fishermen who were saying that it was just wonderful that fish were just stacked up on it, and it was working way better than expected,” he said. 

weedman said the department finished dropping nearly 500 cubes in bartlett lake in early august. he said funds aren’t available to start similar work in other arizona lakes, but the department wants to continue enhancing habitat for fish in the future. 

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this story is part of elemental: covering sustainability, a new multimedia collaboration between cronkite news, arizona pbs, kjzz, kpcc, rocky mountain pbs and pbs socal.

only one side event during the week-long meeting at the fao headquarters in rome was dedicated to fishing, and the fishing industry rarely, if ever, came up during main events. according to people who work on fisheries and aquaculture for the fao, this is indicative of a larger problem.

“fisheries in general, by and large, do not gain as much attention or recognition or publicity as terrestrial agriculture,” said omar elhassan, an aquaculture biosecurity consultant for the fao.

fisheries and aquaculture provide the primary source of animal protein for 17% of the world’s population, according to the fao. and in low-income, food-deficit countries and small-island developing countries, nearly 25% of people rely on fish for their primary source of animal protein. when it comes to nutrition, fish matter, both globally and locally.

the same is true for employment, as it is estimated that more than 260 million people around the world work in the fishing industry. this number doesn’t necessarily account for those who aren’t employed as fishers but rely on sustenance fishing to feed their families. aquaculture and fisheries assure the livelihoods of 10% to 12% of the world’s population, or about 770 million to 925 million people.

if you picture huge industrial fishing boats – or the tv show “deadliest catch” — when you hear the word “fisherman,” you’re not alone. industrial-scale fishing tends to dominate how the western world understands fishing, but it doesn’t reflect the reality for most of the world’s fishers. small-scale fisheries employ 90% of the world’s capture fishers. adjust your mental image to include open-air fish markets, small fishing boats, and “the old man and the sea,” and now you’re closer to the truth. oh, and half the people in your mental image should be women.

empowering female fishers

women make up half the workforce of the seafood industry (including both fisheries and aquaculture). because the fishing activities are often equated with capture fishing and most capture fishers are men, the number of women involved in the fish supply chain has typically been vastly underreported.

“we see some women are fishing, but they are certainly marginalized often because they don’t often get on the boat, and that might also depend on some traditional beliefs – for example, that women are bad luck having on the boat,” said nicole franz, a fishery planning analyst for the fao.

women do the majority of the post-harvest work in many small-scale fisheries worldwide, whether they are cleaning and selling the fish or repairing fish nets and boats. but carrying these responsibilities doesn’t mean women always have access to necessary resources or to the markets, and they rarely reap the full benefits of their work.

“(women) don’t necessarily get the fair distribution of benefits within the value chain. if they’re not organized, that’s even worse. we see examples when you have a women’s organization that can act as a trade group together then obviously they can demand higher prices and they’re in a better position to access the market,” franz said.

the fisheries department at fao works closely with women’s groups, especially in africa and asia, to help support the rights and empowerment of women fishers. franz cites the recent establishment of a national women fishers’ organization in tanzania as an example.

technology as an intervention in fisheries

technology can make a critical difference in the fish supply chain, especially in terms of productivity and nutrition. in africa and southeast asia, it’s common to dry small fish by placing them directly on the beach. access to something as simple as a drying rack can completely change how much a small-scale fishing community can gain from their harvest.

“a small innovation like putting this fish on a rack rather than on the floor could make a big difference in terms of the product quality and hence the price, the nutritional qualities, and the overall volume that is produced by these women,” franz said.

some traditional fish-smoking processes can cause respiratory illnesses among women and children who are exposed to the smoke. the fao is working on providing access to better ovens that allow women to work without health risks. usually, a country or an organization will make a request to the fao for better technology, and the fao will provide training on how to build, operate, and maintain the technology. this helps to avoid dividing the market, which is what would happen if some women were directly given the technology and others were not.

“you need to very carefully assess the situation beforehand and discuss with the women themselves a solution on how maybe as a group they can come up with a system where they take turns in accessing this oven or how they divide the benefits of the products that are coming from the use of this improved technology,” franz said.

indigenous fishers and rights to the resource

small-scale fisheries also are critically important to indigenous communities, from the arctic circle to the coasts of south america. as with women, it’s difficult to track how many fishers are indigenous, but this is an area that the fisheries department of fao is beginning to dedicate more attention to because of how important fishing is to indigenous peoples around the world.

one of the main issues facing indigenous fishers is the recognition of access rights. customary or informal access rights are often disregarded when governments develop regulations and create fishing quotas. in the united states, the fish wars were a notable series of conflicts between the washington state government and native american tribes in the 1960s and 1970s. the state government tried to enforce fishing laws that were in conflict with hundred-year-old treaties held by the tribes, and the u.s. government eventually sided with the tribes.

tribal governments and organizations can help people organize and assert their rights, and franz has noticed an uptick in organizing among young indigenous people, especially.

“it’s an expression of this growing awareness and interest to get organized, to get the voice into processes, and to see how the particular issues that indigenous peoples depending on small-scale fisheries are also facing on top of what already is often a challenge for small-scale fishers,” franz said.

climate change threatens livelihoods

you may be wondering why any of this matters, since climate change is acidifying and warming our oceans, killing our fish, and driving people away from their coastal and island homes. but climate change only makes the need for fisheries-focused work even greater, because the people who rely on fish for income or food will be hit hardest. the role of the fao, then, is to figure out how to increase the resilience of coastal fishing communities.

“we have colleagues (who) work on climate change impacts on fisheries because obviously, in particular, coastal communities are very, very exposed, and the vulnerability to the impacts of climate change are considerably higher in coastal areas,” franz said. “they’re looking at the impact both on the resource, in terms of, for example, how stocks are shifting patterns based on the change of temperature in the sea, but also the impacts of increased climate vulnerability on coastal communities.”

multibillion-dollar fisheries in the united states are threatened by ocean acidification, which impedes the structural development of corals, lobsters, and other marine organisms. one state that is particularly threatened is alaska, the home of the nation’s largest crab fishery. alaskans tend to rely more on subsistence harvests than many other americans, so communities that rely on subsistence crab harvests are especially threatened by the changing ocean. thousands of miles away in the caribbean, ocean acidification is harming the coral reefs that are critical to the economies of florida, puerto rico, and the u.s. virgin islands. coral reefs bring in tourism, produce fish to be harvested, and reduce coastal flooding and erosion.

women and indigenous fishers are especially vulnerable to climate change because their more limited rights and mobility make it harder for them to migrate when their current homes no longer yield enough fish. increasing their economic mobility and power in the market can make women and indigenous fishers more resilient to climate change.

the social costs of conservation

destructive fishing practices and overfishing can transform ecosystems and reduce fisheries, sometimes to the point of no return. when there are few regulations over access to a fishery, resources become depleted and communities are devastated.

“what we see often is that there are no regulations for access, and that’s part of an issue in terms of environmental sustainability, because we see growing populations, increased pressure on coastal areas,” franz said. “on the other hand, for many of these communities, fishing is the only way to make a living, to get food.”

the presence of industrial fishing companies puts pressure on the already tenuous balance of access and protection. common resource management models include coastal zones that are reserved for small-scale fishers, quota systems assigned to a community or an individual, and co-management systems that allow governments to directly collaborate with small-scale and industrial fishers. but monitoring and enforcement is always a challenge for a government, which is a benefit of co-management.

“it’s about handing over, in many ways, the responsibility for the stewardship directly to the communities by generating a system in which they really recognize and value those management measures because they have co-designed them,” franz said.

conflicts between conservation efforts and fishing communities are also a growing issue, especially since national or state governments may create marine protected areas without consulting small-scale fishing communities that will be affected. conservation has social costs, and just access to resources is sometimes overlooked in pursuit of environmental protections.

“in fao, what we’re using is the ecosystem-based approach to fisheries, which tries to look at the environmental, the human, and the institutional dimensions together to make sure that these tradeoffs and tensions are identified from the beginning, and that whenever management measures are decided or the use of an area is decided, this is kept in mind,” franz said.

when negative impacts on the community are unavoidable, it’s important to look out for them in other ways.

“you make sure that either there’s a compensation mechanism or there’s some kind of a safeguarding function to ensure that you’re not having these unintended impacts afterwards that you haven’t even thought about,” franz said.

wild-caught vs farm-raised: the aquaculture debate

not all fish are harvested from the wild, which is a good thing since climate change and overfishing are shrinking fisheries worldwide. aquaculture is responsible for about half of global fish production.

here’s another mental image you may need to adjust: for the most part, aquaculture is not done in factories by large corporations but in backyard ponds by individuals and families. most aquaculture is small-scale, and 90% of the world’s aquaculture takes place in china and southeast asia, according to fao aquaculture biosecurity consultant omar elhassan. and again, about half of the people involved are women.

elhassan believes aquaculture is the future of global fish production, and he notes that aquaculture has been the fastest growing sector of food production since the 1980s. but cultural opinions about it differ greatly from place to place.

“all the fishing zones are essentially at capacity,” elhassan said. “the only thing that’s going to boost food fish production is (aquaculture), but also it really depends on the cultural mindset towards aquaculture.”

in asia and europe, aquaculture tends to be widely accepted, but in the united states, wild-caught fish is believed to have superior freshness and nutrition. 

“in the u.s., (fish) is one of the largest trade deficits. all of the fish in the u.s. is essentially just imported from other countries, and it’s a mix of aquaculture and wild-caught,” elhassan said. but false or misleading labeling leads americans to believe all of the fish they’re eating came from an ocean or a lake.

in elhassan’s opinion, there’s nothing inferior about fish, shrimp, or other animals that come from aquaculture versus from the wild. in terms of nutrition, health, and safety, the american distaste for aquaculture has little factual backing.

protecting aquaculturists’ livelihoods through biosecurity

the main risk faced by aquaculturists is aquatic animal diseases, which can rapidly infect an entire population of animals because it is hard to pinpoint the original source of infection and stop the spread of disease in a pond. biosecurity is a set of measures that people involved in aquaculture undertake to fortify an aquaculture production facility against aquatic animal diseases, and it’s what elhassan focuses on at fao.

“if you’re a small-scale farmer and you lose your entire stock, that can be quite devastating for livelihoods,” elhassan said. it’s like a corn farmer who loses his entire crop to a flood or a sheep herder who loses his herd to an animal attack.

“let’s say i’m a small scale aquaculturist and i lost all of my shrimp stock because of a disease, and let’s say that i’m not even in the worst case; i lost my whole stock but i still had some money or i could still take a loan. there’s still persisting problems of having this disease in my pond. now i have to take all the water out, i have to disinfect the water – can’t just throw it into the environment – and i’m going to have to dry my pond and my soil and sediment and disinfect the things for like at least three months before you would be even allowed to try to produce again,” elhassan said.

the role of the fao is to work with governments that request aquaculture biosecurity assistance to try to protect small-scale aquaculturists from losing their livelihoods in this way.

“what really drives a lot of the work, at least for us in the aquaculture branch, is trying to connect different stakeholders such as national, international, government, academia, and small-scale to recognize aquaculture as a truly profitable enterprise,” elhassan said.

getting fisheries to the global stage – or not

fisheries and aquaculture are profitable, important industries that employ and feed millions of people – especially women and indigenous peoples – around the world. in recognition of this, the fao is working to ensure that the needs of fishers, aquaculturists, and the people who rely on their harvests are addressed by the un. but most public-facing policy conversations in the international community still focus on terrestrial agriculture. despite the love that many cultures share for the ocean, it seems unlikely that fish will ever hold our attention like cows have.

but on the other hand, elhassan and franz measure success through the local impacts of their efforts, not through the global perception of their work. their focus is the small-scale fisher, not the large-scale policymaker. and maybe that’s for the best – maybe the most impactful work is done when policies for fisheries and aquaculture remain on the smallest scale.