“from birth one of my passions has been the ocean,” doall said, a lasting enthusiasm that ultimately led to his career in regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration. while his days of skipping class to bum it at the beach may be over, you can still find doall in the bays of long island, dedicating hours to researching and reviving the marine organisms that provide innumerable benefits to the ecosystem he calls home. 

at the beginning of doall’s education in marine biology, regenerative aquaculture — the farming of marine species in open waters to bolster habitat quality — was not remotely common in the u.s., let alone something on doall’s mind. but, having always had gardens growing up, doall found that the field of ocean aquaculture brought together his passions for the ocean and for growing things.

doall was first exposed to regenerative aquaculture 20 years ago while managing a research service facility in long island. the nature conservancy had started a hard clam and oyster restoration program in long island’s great south bay and reached out to doall for his analytic expertise. bivalves, such as clams and oysters, are essential to ocean ecosystems, because they suck up excess nutrients and sediment from waterways, improving water quality and preventing harmful algal blooms. at the nature conservancy, doall grew shellfish in cages across the bay to study how different marine environments would support these species. 

there, he realized how much he enjoyed growing the oysters and rebuilding marine ecosystems, so he dove deeper into open water aquaculture by establishing the first oyster restoration projects in new york harbor (nyh). while working at these sites, he aimed to use oysters as solely an environmental tool — the harbor’s pollution meant organisms wouldn’t be safe for consumption — but later he “had the epiphany that oysters do the same thing in an aquaculture setting as they do in nature.” that is, by growing oysters for human consumption, these filter feeders would naturally improve water quality by consuming excess nutrients and provide a sustainable source of fresh seafood at the same time.

inspired, doall started his own oyster farm in 2008: montauk shellfish company. he took a lot of pride in being an oyster farmer, stating that “one of the most important activities you can do is to grow food and feed your community.” and feed his community he did. doall was on the cusp of an “oyster renaissance” and would witness montauk take off beyond his expectations. 

during his time as an oyster farmer, doall took a trip up to maine and was introduced to a new sea crop that would later inspire his research: kelp. doall was interested in crop diversification for his farm and learned from some of the first u.s. kelp farmers that this sea veggie is a great complement to shellfish because of their opposite growth seasons (kelp in the winter, shellfish in the summer). 

though he sold his farm in 2017, doall still very much considers himself a farmer in his current role as associate director for bivalve restoration and aquaculture at stony brook university. as a scientist, doall is well positioned to pursue kelp through research projects in long island waters that do not yet allow commercial kelp farming due to a decade-long battle for obtaining permits and expanding processing capacity.

over the past four years, doall has been tirelessly dedicated to bringing the benefits of kelp to long island. as with oysters, kelp sucks excess nitrogen out of the water, helping to keep our oceans clean. combining the two creatures creates a marine-cleaning superteam to counteract the eutrophication — excessive nutrient pollution — that has long plagued long island. further, kelp captures carbon dioxide from the water column as it photosynthesizes. that carbon gets removed from the ocean when the kelp is harvested, making seaweed a tool for fighting local ocean acidification that threatens the health of our marine ecosystems, including many of the species we depend on for food. doall developed a specialized technique for growing kelp in the shallow coastal waters of long island that are only knee or waist deep, as opposed to traditional kelp farming that is done in much deeper waters. he was impressively able to grow 12-foot long kelp fronds in only 6 feet of water. this compact feat can help not only shallow-water ocean farmers but also other species residing in shallow bays, where poor water flow otherwise means poor water quality.

the nutrient-extraction capabilities of farming kelp are especially important in long island. as doall said of his hometown, “long islanders love their lawns and golf courses.” he tells me about the truckloads of fertilizer that are brought in during the warmer months, dumping nitrogen all across the island. a farmer at heart, doall envisions growing forests of kelp along the coast to absorb the nitrogen runoff from shore. once harvested, this kelp can be developed into nitrogen-rich fertilizer, equipped with other micronutrients and biostimulants, that can be used throughout the community. it would be a closed nitrogen loop, lowering the demand for imported fertilizer and delivering environmental and economic benefits to the island. doall plans to explore such a system’s feasibility this summer through garden studies on kelp-based fertilizer’s benefits.

doall’s dedication to restoring his home seas has carried him through a variety of challenges. despite support from large environmental groups such as the nature conservancy and pew charitable trust, regenerative aquaculture must compete with a variety of stakeholders on the water. recreational boaters, commercial fishermen, and even wind surfers have opposed doall’s projects.

“in the end, all these groups recognize the value of regenerative farming, but a lot of people don’t want it in an area where they’re doing something,” he said. there is also a so-called “social carrying capacity” for aquaculture: once over ~5% of the coastline is occupied by ocean farmers, “people start freaking out” and are quick to complain about the oyster farms visible from their backyard. nevertheless, doall has found that a healthy, bustling ocean can unify disparate marine interests.

at the end of the day, doall believes in his mission to support ocean farming and rebuild shellfish populations in his home waters. while he knows his focal solutions to climate change are not the only solutions, the benefits of regenerative aquaculture and shellfish restoration cannot be ignored. aquaculture projects secure jobs and income while nutrient bioextraction revitalizes the ecosystem, a win-win for coastal economies and environments. moreover, because of overfishing and marine habitat degradation, fishing communities that have long relied on the ocean for their sense of identity are losing their cultural ties. luckily, according to doall, “regenerative aquaculture is a way to bring that cultural identity back…so there’s a win-win-win.”

you will always find doall working away in the waters of long island, happy as a clam, because, “when do you plant a victory flag? never.” the fight for climate-resilient solutions never stops, but local, restorative projects like these continue to provide hope for a greener future.

you’re standing on a beach, while gentle waves lap against the sand. if you look into the water, you can see hermit crabs munching away on algae. the smell of seawater wafts through your nose. warm sunlight streams down, filtering through the geometric glass walls and ceiling. outside, you can see the sonoran desert and the santa catalina mountains in the distance. 

you’re not standing at sea level but at an elevation of over 4,000 feet. you’re inside a former space colony experiment that’s now an earth systems research center.

welcome to the biosphere 2 ocean.

the university of arizona’s biosphere 2 is a unique facility where marine biologists, atmospheric scientists, biogeographers and other scientists conduct large-scale experiments. katie morgan, manager of marine systems at biosphere 2, is currently preparing the ocean for some new accessories. morgan points out the $3 million worth of lights to hang over the surface, which she explains will be critical for helping corals grow under glass that blocks out uva and uvb light. 

biosphere 2 has a long history of groundbreaking research in the public eye. the biosphere 2 ocean provides an opportunity for visitors to see marine science in action, no sea legs required. i was fortunate to have the opportunity to get a behind-the-scenes tour from morgan. here are 5 fascinating facts about the biosphere 2 ocean that are sure to amaze:

1. it’s the biggest research tank in the world, morgan said. filled with 2.6 million liters of saltwater, it’s just a tad bigger than an olympic swimming pool. unfortunately, morgan explained that visitors are not allowed to swim in the ocean, so michael phelps will need to find another place to practice. the biosphere 2 ocean mimics the shape of the ocean floor with a beach that drops off until a reef crest rises up to break the waves, followed by a drop down to a deeper ocean beyond. 

2. the deeper end of the ocean plunges 7 meters, or just over 21 feet—that’s deep enough to cliff-dive into. a tall cliff rises on the edge of the ocean, allowing a bird’s-eye view of the simulated sea. assistant research professor joost van haren, who has worked at biosphere 2 for decades, shared an anecdote about the lives of the original inhabitants of the facility. when biosphere 2 was created as a prototype habitat for humans on mars, the biospherians who lived inside the experiment between 1991 and 1993 didn’t just do research all day. they were able to cliff-dive safely into the water. talk about a fun lunch break! 

3. so where did those 700,000 gallons of water come from? the original researchers knew that to create a true ocean system, they needed all the features of ocean water. these include minerals and microorganisms that turn saltwater into seawater. rather than trying to replicate true ocean water, morgan explained that the creators of biosphere 2 decided to bring 100,000 gallons of seawater from san diego to the facility, carried in milk trucks across the desert.

4. in the late ’90s, columbia university conducted climate change experiments within biosphere 2. according to morgan, columbia scientists knew that with rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere would come rising acidity in the oceans. they wondered how high acidity would affect a coral reef system, so they raised the acidity of the ocean to mimic a future atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration of 420 ppm. as a result, corals grew less and underwent a bleaching event, losing their colorful symbiotic algae and starving to death. with the data collected, the researchers predicted that future ocean acidification in the real ocean would cause a 40 percent decrease in coral growth between 1880 to 2065. this was one of the first studies on ocean acidification, a defining issue threatening oceans today.

5. morgan is well aware that ocean acidification is not the only threat facing corals. oceans absorb not only carbon dioxide, but also heat. this function is critical for the health of our planet: it is our oceans that keep air temperatures steady and livable. as global temperatures rise, oceans endure the brunt of it. high water temperatures are hard on corals. morgan likened long heat waves in the ocean to human illness: “if you have a 102-degree fever for two days, you recover. if you have a fever for two weeks, you die.” equipped with a heat exchange system, the ocean can simulate these heat waves. water run through the system is heated or cooled, and then returned to the research tank. according to morgan, the entirety of the 700,000-gallon ocean can be moved through the heat exchange system in 24 hours, enabling groundbreaking research on how heat waves affect corals and what humans can do to save them.

––

with 50 international partners, the research team at the biosphere 2 ocean will continue doing critical work. keep an eye out in the news for the iconic glass structure because there’s no doubt that biosphere 2 is going to be making headlines again.

these changes in the natural variations of the reefs’ environments have caused a phenomenon known as coral bleaching, which is devastating to reefs. coral bleaching causes a reduction in photosynthetic pigment concentrations, which results in the destruction of major reef tracts and the extinction of many coral species. both the frequency and extent of coral bleaching worldwide has seen a rapid increase in the past 20 years. more directly, overfishing and careless tourism are also destroying our oceans corals. earlier this year, we saw the trending #10yearchallenge which many ocean activists such as photographer jim abernethy took as an opportunity to post on social media and reveal the extreme deterioration that has taken place in our oceans over the last 10 years.

why should you care?

we need coral reefs, however, corals are stressed and, more recently, facing risk of extinction. coral reefs sustain and protect the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, they provide medicine, protect coastal communities, serve as a nursery for a quarter of the world’s fish and 8 million species, drive tourism and support jobs for millions of people around the world. the great barrier reef in australia alone for example generates more than $1.5 billion every year from various industries including fishing and tourism. while individual corals build reefs over thousands of years, environmental stressors and physical damage can destroy a reef in less than a decade, leading to devastating and irreversible effects.

coral nurseries: what are they and how can they help?

the health, management and conservation of coral reefs, is a fundamental issue currently facing humanity, presenting a real challenge to sustainability. historically, coral conservationists have focused their efforts on protecting these invaluable marine resources from direct environmental threats. while these efforts continue, researchers are now also looking at ways to tackle coral reef restoration more proactively. conservationists have developed a technique to grow corals in nurseries and repopulate damaged reefs. coral “nurseries” nurture small, found pieces of coral on underwater structures, as seen in the picture below, until they can be replanted on existing reefs, stimulating recovery of these ecosystems. the slow growth rate of corals makes recovery from mass death events, such as bleaching or disease, challenging, but, in low stress environments of a nursery, conservationists can grow corals much faster, giving the reefs a fighting chance. most importantly perhaps, coral nurseries allow conservationists to manage the diversity coral populations. fostering diversity among corals means the overall population will be more resilient to changes in its environment, such as warming ocean waters.

one group that has made significant progress through coral nurseries is the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa). in the waters around florida, puerto rico, and the u.s. virgin islands, noaa works with a number of partners in various capacities to maintain 27 coral nurseries. these underwater safe havens serve a dual function; not only do they provide a stable environment for injured corals to recuperate, but they also produce thousands of healthy young corals, ready to be transplanted into previously devastated areas.

in most cases, unhealthy corals are first taken to a lab where they are nurtured before being translated to coral nurseries in the ocean, however, hawaii’s division of aquatic resources recently established a small-scale pilot coral nursery to test a new technique on the east coast of oahu in kaneohe bay. the project aims to determine the effectiveness of in situ, or “in-the-field,” coral nurseries, here, the damaged coral fragments are directly translated to coral nurseries in the ocean where the environment can not be artificially manipulated.

looking toward the future: where does this leave us?

every year, the noaa alone reintroduces over 2000 healthy corals back to the sea floor. in the image below we can see a growing and thriving transplanted elkhorn coral that was re-introduced near vega baja in puerto rico. the first image on the left was taken in 2009 when the coral was first re-introduced to the ocean, the middle image was taken in 2010 and the final one on the right in 2014. this image shows the increased speed by which corals that have been in coral nurseries grow in comparison to wild corals and also demonstrates how quickly reef ecosystems can form around healthy corals as between the 5 years we can already see more life on the ocean floor around the coral.

even though coral nurseries started out as a way to rebuild reefs that had been damaged, the vast investment they have received has allowed them to grow beyond their initial aims. today, researchers are looking for ways to actively build the resilience of corals through coral nurseries in the ocean and in the lab. scientists want to know what factors allow corals to adapt to a changing climate and how they might intervene to help the corals. if achieved, this can create a solution to the changing ocean temperatures in the future and protect other corals from the death they are currently facing.

although much progress has been done but groups such as the european union, the united nations, international maritime organization and many others to implement stricter laws and regulations to protect our oceans, coral nurseries are still not widely known about or implement even though they provide a relatively low scale and affordable solution. it is extremely important to protect our oceans from further damage but coral nurseries provide us with the tools to also restore corals that have already been damaged and we must take advantage of this opportunity.

the great pacific garbage patch is an enormous mass of trash that sits in the north pacific ocean between the western coast of california and the eastern coast of japan. the garbage patch is twice the size of texas and is caused by the subtropical conversion zone, circulating and collecting the trash. the trash vortex is comprised of everything from rubber tires to plastic soda can rings and fishing nets, but the vast majority is made of plastics. an estimated 80% of the trash vortex is composed of plastic and other debris from land. plastic is not biodegradable, which means bacteria and other microorganisms do not recognize this foreign substance as food. plastics can be photodegraded, which means the sunlight is able to break down the plastic into extremely small pieces, but those pieces still exist. however, this is arguably more detrimental to the marine ecosystem and aquatic life. 

about 100,000 marine animals die annually from plastic pollution, and 70% of photodegraded plastic particles sink to the ocean floor where benthic or bottom dwelling organisms consume the particles. fish are one of the most affected by the plastic pollution because fish view the small pieces of plastic as zooplankton or other forms of food. sea turtles view larger pieces of debris, like plastic bags, as sea lettuce or algae and sea birds are also commonly seen eating the plastic. an estimated 98% of albatross birds have plastic in their stomachs. the plastic provides no nutrition so many of the seabirds die due to starvation. marine mammals also are affected by the trash vortex because they become entangled or trapped by fishing nets and other forms of large debris. the trash and debris found in the great pacific garbage patch is adversely affecting marine life.

so, what can we do? cleaning up the garbage patch by removing the trash and debris from the ocean is one way to improve the ocean and decrease the trash vortex. however, this will not stop the source of the pollution. instead purchasing biodegradable plastics will allow the bacteria to break down the trash and prevent the plastics from persisting in the environment. in addition, recycling more will also help to prevent the trash from ending up in the ocean. even better, we can reduce plastic consumption by using reusable dishware and water bottles. it is our responsibility to reduce consumption and to be more environmentally conscious in order to preserve and protect our ocean and this world.

— holly goldberg and hayley walker / george washington university

there are only 3 high tolerance parts and the rest of the turbine can be fabricated from locally-sourced materials even in underdeveloped countries.

a further development of this device directly produces browns gas from deep salt water sites. this version will also bring cool water from 300ft depth to the surface 24/7/365. this will substantially cool the surface water in the local environment which will lessen the strength of hurricanes wich are powered by the high temperature of suface sea water.

i have built and run wind versions of this turbine and it is effective and simple. i believe it has immense potential.

i am a naval architect, master marine technician, and marine surveyor and i am fully at home in the working environment in which i have designed this turbine.