as a result of extractive and polluting capitalist ventures, humanity is now engaged in a fight for our ocean’s survival along with the livelihoods of those who depend on it for sustenance, income, and cultural meaning. with industrial overfishing and marine environmental destruction threatening fish and crustacean health, we desperately need to overhaul our maritime relationships and seafood systems. a wealth of environmentally preservative marine stewardship traditions by indigenous communities provide examples of how to do things right. indigenous scholar kii’iljuus barbara wilson of the cumshewa eagle clan notes, “it’s time to…learn about all the things my ancestors did to ensure that there was enough fish and octopus — looking after and respecting the environment.” our planet is in dire need of sustainable food sources that both support our deteriorating natural ecosystems and nourish increasing human populations, requirements met by multiple indigenous seafood systems.

indigenous seafood stewardship past and present

there is an extensive history of first nations people across the world practicing mariculture, or the cultivation of marine life for food in enclosed areas of open waters. indigenous communities along the northwest coast of north america have long harvested herring eggs from kelp, cedar, and spruce fronds they strategically placed in shallow ocean waters. these introduced organic materials enhance spawning grounds, therefore improving the likelihood that herring will return. in new zealand, the māori people have engaged in mara mataitai –– various approaches to mariculture –– to ensure collective food security since 925. for instance, māori communities used bull kelp to fertilize beds of toheroa, a large bivalve mollusk, to enhance its productivity. māori mariculture is informed by utu, a concept dictating reciprocity with the species and ecosystems from which humans derive our resources. if this principle is replicated by ocean stewards worldwide, we can bolster and protect the ocean habitats on which we greatly rely.

one of the most productive indigenous mariculture innovations that could radically transform our seafood systems if adopted at a larger scale is the clam garden. various populations have been constructing clam gardens for at least 4,000 years by building a rock wall at the low tide line that traps sediment, thereby reducing the slope of the beach and increasing clam habitat area. clam gardens specifically support enhanced production by creating a larger area of optimal intertidal height qualified with prime growth conditions. in british columbia, butter clams within gardens had 1.96 times the biomass and 2.44 times the density as their counterparts in unmodified beaches. to create more productive food systems, the seafood industry must take indigenous practices of food cultivation seriously and learn from the skills willing to be shared. there is no use in waiting for western science to confirm what first nations people have known about the success of their seafood systems for centuries.

these examples of indigenous mariculture innovations provide a small survey of the indigenous stewardship methods that bolster seafood supplies while fostering a restorative relationship with our seas, all without utilizing industrial resources or exploiting the environment. in bitter irony, “indigenous people are now the ‘outliers’ on their own ancestral lands,” despite their superior, sustainable stewardship. first nations people engaged with mariculture practices deserve reparations and support from industrial actors and government programming alike. governments can start by reversing restrictive policies such as canada’s fisheries act that asserts federal authority over all fisheries in canada, undermining the rights of indigenous communities to exercise their expertise over the waters they’ve long depended on.

climate-forward collaborations

in a present-day model program, researchers, tribal nations, students, and various indigenous stewards are currently coming together through the cross-pacific regional collaborative hub funded by noaa’s sea grant program in washington state. this project is initiating research, outreach, and education in collaboration with indigenous communities across hawaii, alaska, and washington to advance indigenous aquaculture practices in the pacific region. the group hosts summits, advances existing restoration sites, and plans for future investments in indigenous aquaculture. returns to indigenous ocean stewardship, accompanied by reparatory and collaborative action, can build more gentle yet robust seafood systems while rebuilding the industry’s broken connection to the sea.

this story was featured in our series, slipping through our fingers: the future of water.

how kelp can help

ocean-based kelp farming has emerged as not only one of the most sustainable methods of aquaculture, but an actively restorative one. contrary to its land-dwelling relatives, kelp requires no freshwater, no pesticides, and no arable land to flourish. this low-maintenance system actively protects the surrounding ecosystem from the hazards of ocean acidification (oa) by soaking up dissolved carbon dioxide for use in photosynthesis, thereby restoring ph to healthy levels. kelp can also help to prevent harmful algal blooms (habs) by absorbing anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus –– nutrients that stimulate the toxic proliferation of algae –– to feed itself.

u.s. investment in this method of regenerative ocean farming (rof) has grown substantially in the past decade as people have sought to supplant the tradition of purchasing seaweed products from china and indonesia. with imports accounting for over 95% of edible seaweed products available in the u.s., there is plenty of room for homegrown farmers to take over. such a switch would also eliminate the monetary and emissions costs of cross-continent transportation. farmers such as fogg are therefore “[creating] nutritious, delicious kelp-based products that support ocean farmers and fight climate change.”

currently, maine and alaska are farming the majority of domestic seaweed biomass, but rof is quickly expanding throughout new england and the west coast. researchers project u.s.-farmed seaweed harvests will quadruple by 2035. expansion of the kelp farming industry creates and diversifies coastal jobs, provides healthy seafood from local sources, and buffers marine wildlife from the impacts of oa and habs. so, what’s left to do? sell this seaweed all along the seashore.

taking our taste buds out to sea

finally growing out of the boutique, us-grown seaweed market in 2019, kelp has begun to make a new name for itself by flaunting its applicability and nutrition. kelp is a versatile food that can be kept fresh, frozen, dried, or ground into an array of products, from noodles to seasoning. this salty sea veggie is packed with potassium, magnesium, fiber, essential fatty acids (omega-3’s), high quality proteins, and vitamins a, b, c, e, and k. a single ⅓ cup serving of kelp can satisfy your daily iodine requirements –– a mineral that is essential for regulating metabolism, among other important bodily processes.

the u.s. non-profit greenwave is leading the charge to get more rof operations up and running, and is now directing a market innovation program that helps open up new business channels for these rof farmers. akua is just one of the companies that greenwave is partnering with to develop desirable kelp commodities. courtney boyd myers–the co-founder of akua–launched her first product, kelp jerky, back in 2019 upon learning about the vast environmental, economic, and health benefits of kelp farming. their new headline product is the world’s first commercially sold kelp burger; this is what propelled the company to the national stage. since their initial launch, akua has tripled their purchasing volume and garnered more capacity for food research and development, adding pasta, ground “meat,” and a kelp “krab” cake to their list of creations. “we’re on a mission to make kelp mainstream,” says boyd myers.

and they’re not alone. back in maine, atlantic sea farms (asf) is making waves with their award-winning kelp-based kimchi, fresh seaweed salad, and smoothie-ready frozen kelp cubes. asf even boasts high-profile partners such as sweetgreen and daily harvest. alaska’s barnacle foods is creating a line of salsa made from bull kelp that packs an umami punch. eat more kelp (long island, ny), seagrove kelp co. (alaska), and blue evolution (pacific coast) are also hopping on the regenerative seaweed farming boat. with >80% of domestic seaweed production growth through 2035 projected to be stimulated by value-added edible products, the only thing left to do is get this kelp on your shelf.

kelp can “usurp the burp”

the benefits of kelp are being explored beyond the human market, creating an even larger demand for biomass. one surprising candidate: cows. there are about 3 billion ruminant animals on the planet –– including cows, sheep and goats –– that burp methane as part of their digestive process. methane has almost 30 times the short-term heat trapping power as carbon dioxide, making it an especially potent greenhouse gas. according to the epa, domestic livestock in the u.s. contribute 36% of anthropogenic emissions, and in california alone, 1.8 million dairy cows emit as much co2 equivalent as 2.5 million cars each year. in some environmentalists’ perfect world, the entire planet would be vegan. however, this tactic ignores the 1.3 billion people that partially or entirely depend on the livestock industry as a vital source of income.

through kelp driven innovation, perhaps we don’t have to condemn livestock production outright. researchers at james cook university in australia explored the ancient greek and icelandic practice of raising cattle by the ocean to tackle this conundrum. the team tested out over 20 species of seaweed in cow’s diets and came up with one clear climate-friendly winner: asparagopsis taxiformis. whereas some species reduced methane emissions by 50% when comprising up to 20% of the feed, a. taxiformis reduced methane production by 99% when only taking up 2% of the diet. robert kinley and his team realized that bromoform –– a molecule found in a. taxiformis –– disrupts an enzyme used by a methane-producing gut bacteria in the course of digestion. in addition to solving an environmental problem, seaweed feeds also help farmers save on cattle cuisine: by minimizing energy waste in animal digestion (~15% of feed expenses are lost in methane emissions) the livestock can grow and produce more milk while requiring less sustenance.

many growers and foodies projected that kelp will take over as “the new kale” and come to dominate the plates of health-minded consumers. despite this enthusiasm, kelp still needs all (i’m looking at you, cows) of our curiosity and support to reach an economy of scale in which such nutrient-rich, climate-friendly creations can compete with other gmo, lab-grown, and resource-intensive food alternatives on the market today. the bottom line, says myers: “if we can move people’s stomachs, we can move their minds to be conscious of the impact of their decisions around food and in other parts of their life.” the next time you visit the grocery store, go out to eat, or talk to a friend, try to make a choice that will actively kelp our farmers, our seas, and our planet.

paving the way for the future of new zealand’s aquaculture industry, the cawthron institute is collaborating with te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to study the native species of karengo. this red seaweed grows along intertidal shorelines, along the rocky east coast of the south island, along with some parts of the north island coast. the research program, “he tipu moana he oranga tangata: revealing karengo as a high-value functional food,” predominantly took place in august and september, when the karengo flourished from around the kaikoura to bluff regions. similar to japanese nori, karengo has been used for centuries as a traditional māori food source. the researchers have been working closely with indigenous people to better understand the seaweed’s capabilities and māori preparation. the study received $3 million to perform their research, courtesy of the nz ministry of business, innovation and employment. 

the aim of the study is four-fold: in order to identify the seaweed, develop a method for algae protein extraction to retain important components; assess the value of the algae when used in food products; analyze the composition; determine the health and nutritional benefits.

with these objectives in mind, the team hopes to help develop a high-value industry with this karengo seaweed at its center. in the words of team researcher and head of analytical research & development at the cawthron institute, tom wheeler, the end goal is to develop karengo-infused foods that are “desirable as well as being nutritious.”

in the process of experimentation, wheeler and his team cataloged karengo samples and completed dna-based sequencing to identify each karengo species. they identified each species based on form and structure (morphology), as well as the genetic basis. the team extracted the protein composition of each sample through the processes of transcription of dna to rna and translation from rna to protein. through holistic categorization, the team could distinguish between outwardly similar forms of algae.

wheeler said in a statement that it could take between five to ten years for the program to conclude with the results they have in mind, but much has already been discovered. through their protein-sequencing program, the team has already identified five species and 2 genera. they have found, to date, two species in the porphyra genus and three in pyropia. all of these species were found to have valuable nutritional properties, some including all essential amino acids, micronutrients such as iron, and anti-inflammatory bioactives. these bioactives have been shown in other studies to help diminish pain and inflammation caused by conditions such as chronic lung and inflammatory bowel diseases. in an interview, dr. wheeler highlighted the importance of these findings, citing their nuance in a “plant-based protein from a source that hasn’t really been utilized so far in terms of the food industry sense.”

karengo is no new discovery. professor mithen, chief scientist for the new zealand high value nutrition national science challenge, notes that “karengo is part of the exceedingly rich native flora of aotearoa new zealand.” what is worth the $3 million in funding is the massive potential of the seaweed industry for new zealand. mithen continues, saying, “harvesting karengo in a sustainable manner will lead to the development of new foods to benefit the health of the people of new zealand and offer innovative export opportunities for business.” as more people are beginning to realize the implications of the dairy and meat industries, the demand for alternative protein sources continues to increase. another study on the structure of algae noted that the physical composition of algae makes it well suited for making nutraceuticals, or high-value nutritional supplements. plant-based proteins are derived from all sorts of resources, with often a lessened environmental impact and heightened nutrition. 

a new high-value industry would be monumental for new zealand’s aquaculture industry, joining the broad market of fin-fish and shellfish. research such as this project will help drive investment into the seaweed industry. wheeler emphasizes that “this kind of research and development will inform investment and policy making that supports the sustainable long-term growth of the industry”. it is the hope of the research team and those funding their research that seaweed will become the third pillar of new zealand’s aquaculture industry.

there is still much exploring left uncovered in the realm of seaweed research. along the coast of new zealand alone, there are hundreds of varieties of native seaweeds. their unknown composition and bioactive potential alludes to years of future discovery. 

it would be unjust to study karengo and its nutrition potential without acknowledging the traditions of the māori people who have been using this seaweed for centuries. researchers from the cawthron institute have collaborated closely with both te rūnanga o ngāi tahu and wakatū incorporation to incorporate indigenous perspective into their work. alongside these organizations, the researchers learned about traditional cultivation practices and preparation methods, as the māori have been using karengo for its nutritional value as a staple in their diets. as this project continues, the team has acknowledged the importance of sustainable development of karengo cultivation and the seaweed market. once the capitalist actors become involved, it is often difficult to maintain sustainability as a priority. yet, without a positive environmental perspective, an irresponsible exploitation of karengo would quickly decimate the variety of species. 

although there are many components to sustainable development of such industries, it is essential to establish safe practices for the long-term wellbeing of the ecosystem. the project will work alongside local partners to determine the most conscientious methods for harvesting and preparation, with heavy emphasis on indigenous knowledge. it will be interesting to see in twenty years how this project and others like it redefine new zealand’s aquaculture industry and the lasting impacts –– the good, the bad, and the algae. 

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sources:

https://climatechange.ucdavis.edu/news/can-seaweed-cut-methane-emissions-on-dairy-farms/

https://caes.ucdavis.edu/news/articles/2018/may/can-seaweed-cut-methane-emissions-on-dairies

http://www.fao.org/in-action/enteric-methane/background/en/

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/forests-of-seaweed-can-help-climate-change-without-fire/

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/food/the-plate/2016/11/seaweed-may-be-the-solution-for-burping-cows/

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-bad-of-a-greenhouse-gas-is-methane/